Han Dynasty Generals

Yuan Tan

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Yuán Tán was the eldest son of the powerful warlord Yuan Shao, and served as a military commander under his father during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. After Yuan Shao's death, Yuan Tan split with his youngest brother Yuan Shang over the successorship to their father's realm. Yuan Tan sought help from the powerful warlord Cao Cao and defeated Yuan Shang. The alliance, however, eventually broke and Yuan Tan was defeated and executed by Cao Cao.

Life

Yuan Tan was born the eldest son of the powerful warlord, Yuan Shao. He accompanied his father to the famous Battle of Guandu against rival warlord Cao Cao in 200. Yuan Shao, however, was utterly defeated in the conflict and fell sick shortly after returning to his base city of . All along, Yuan Shao had intended to pass on his legacy to his youngest son Yuan Shang , who was said to be extremely handsome, but the successorship had not been clearly established by the time Yuan Shao died in 202.

Many officials intended to make Yuan Tan the successor according to seniority of the heirs but Shen Pei and Feng Ji , two influential advisors, supported Yuan Shang and pushed for him to inherit Yuan Shao's legacy. When Yuan Tan rushed back from his duty elsewhere, he could not revert the situation so instead he proclaimed himself General of Chariots and Cavalry , his father's former title.

In autumn of the same year, Cao Cao launched an offensive against the Yuan brothers. Yuan Tan stationed his troops in against the attack but his request for more troops was turned down by his brother, who feared Yuan Tan would take over military control. Yuan Shang then left Shen Pei to defend Ye and personally led a force to Liyang to assist in the defense. For half a year the battle went on but the Yuan brothers eventually gave up the city and retreated to Ye.

Cao Cao's advisor Guo Jia then suggested that the Yuan brothers would fight between themselves in the absence of an external enemy. Cao Cao took the counsel and withdrew his troops to attack Liu Biao in . Meanwhile, Yuan Tan and Yuan Shang indeed began to battle each other. After suffering initial defeats, Yuan Tan retreated to and sent out an emissary seeking to ally with Cao Cao. Cao Cao agreed and even married a daughter to Yuan Tan to strengthen the alliance.

Yuan Shang soon led a force to attack his brother again but had to retreat when he heard news of Cao Cao's siege on Ye. His force tried to converge with that in the city but the attempt was foiled. The defeated Yuan Shang then escaped north deep into the Wuhuan territory. Meanwhile, Yuan Tan violated the alliance by taking Ganling , Anping County , Bohai Commandery and Hejian into his realm. He also took over some former troops of Yuan Shang after the latter went into exile. Cao Cao then turned his force against Yuan Tan, who retreated to . In 205, Yuan Tan was eventually defeated and executed by Cao Cao.

Yuan Tan in Romance of the Three Kingdoms

''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', a 14th century historical novel by Luo Guanzhong, was a romanticization of the events that occurred before and during the Three Kingdoms era. In Chapter 33, Yuan Tan was said to have sent Xin Ping as an emissary to Cao Cao while besieged in Nanpi County to seek surrender but was declined. When Xin Ping returned, Yuan Tan accused him of treason since his brother Xin Pi served in Cao Cao's camp. The undue accusation angered Xin Ping so much that he soon died, much to Yuan Tan's regret.

The next morning, Yuan Tan placed the commoners, who were hastily armed during the night, in front of his troops and marched into battle with Cao Cao outside the city. Yuan Tan was subsequently killed in battle by Cao Hong .

Yuan Xi

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Yuán Xī was the second son of the warlord Yuán Shào and a military general under his father during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era in ancient China. After he was defeated in battle against Cáo Cāo, he fled to Liaodong with his younger brother Yuán Shàng and was betrayed and killed by Gongsun Kang, governor of Liaodong, who sent his head to Cáo Cāo. His wife Zhen Luo was seized by Cao Pi and became Cao Pi's wife. He could be the father of Cao Rui, the future Emperor Ming of Wei. This was due to the fact that Cao Rui was apparently born only eight months after Cao Pi married Lady Zhen, although this appeared to be rather unlikely given that Yuan Xi had been away from for quite some time before the marriage. It was because of this that Lady Zhen eventually lost Cao Pi's favor altogether.

Yuan Shao

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Yuan Shao was a powerful warlord during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. He occupied the northern territories of ancient China during the massive civil war towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era. He was also the elder brother of Yuan Shu, a warlord who controlled the Huai River region, though the two were not in good terms with each other.

One of the most powerful warlords of his time, Yuan Shao spearheaded a coalition of warlords against the tyrannical Dong Zhuo, who held hostage in the capital Luoyang, but failed due to internal disunity. In 200, he launched a campaign against rival warlord Cao Cao but was defeated utterly at the decisive Battle of Guandu. He died of sickness two years later in . His eventual failure despite his powerful family background and geographical advantages was commonly blamed on his indecisiveness and inability to heed the advice of his advisors.

Life

Early life and career

A local of the county of , Yuan Shao was born in the noble family, whose members had since the 1st century been prominent in the civil bureaucracy of the Han Dynasty. Descended from the Interior Minister Yuan An, who served under , Yuan Shao's exact parentage was the source of controversy and the major cause of dispute between him and Yuan Shu. Yuan Shao was an offspring of the Minister of Agriculture Yuan Feng , and an elder half-brother of Yuan Feng's son, Yuan Shu, both were great-grandson of Yuan An, as recorded by the ''Book of Wei'' by . Yuan Shao's mother was originally a maid in Yuan Feng's house, and since Yuan Feng lacked male offspring, the birth of Yuan Shao elevated his mother's status from a maid to a concubine. The '''' claimed that Yuan Shao was elder cousin to Yuan Shu. The reason for this was that Yuan Feng's older brother also lacked any male offsprings so Yuan Shao was adopted by Yuan Feng's older brother as his son. This adoption infuriated Yuan Shu, because despite also being a concubine's son, the younger Yuan Shu had a mother originally with higher status. The adoption of Yuan Shao by their elder uncle meant that Yuan Shao had become the eldest son of the clan, and would enjoy all the privileges associated with being the eldest. In their disputes in the later years, Yuan Shu would use the Yuan Shao's mother as an excuse to claim that Yuan Shao was really not a true son of the Yuan family, which inevitably would infuriate Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao was also a childhood friend of his future rival, Cao Cao.

When Yuan Shao was young, he participated in saving some of the "partisans" from death or other terrible fates during the second . After he entered into government service, Yuan Shao initially served as an aide to General-in-Chief He Jin and was heavily trusted by the latter. After the death of in 189, He Jin and Yuan Shao jointly plotted to execute the powerful eunuch faction but the empress dowager was against the move. He Jin then summoned Dong Zhuo to lead troops into the capital Luoyang to lay pressure on the empress dowager. Meanwhile, however, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuch faction, which was then involved in a bloody clash with Yuan Shao and other followers of He Jin. The resulting power vacuum provided an excellent opportunity for Dong Zhuo to seize control of the capital when he arrived.

Dong Zhuo then discussed with Yuan Shao about his plan to depose the young successor to Emperor Ling in favor of Emperor Xian, but Yuan Shao disagreed. Relationship between the two deteriorated sharply and Yuan Shao fled the capital to Ji province . Fearing the many connections the influential Yuan family had, Dong Zhuo then assigned Yuan Shao to governor of Bohai Commandery in a bid to appease the latter.

Coalition against Dong Zhuo

By early 190, however, Yuan Shao became openly hostile. A coalition of regional officials and commanders from the eastern provinces, including Cao Cao, Yuan Shu, Han Fu, Zhang Miao and Bao Xin, formed up behind him in a campaign to oust Dong Zhuo. Yuan Shao declared himself "General of Chariots and Cavalry" and camped at , near a ford on the Yellow River just north of Luoyang. Dong Zhuo then had the emperor taken to the strategically defensive Chang'an and a year later, he burned Luoyang to the ground and withdrew to the west himself.

During this time, Yuan Shao and Han Fu had intended to boost the righteousness of the coalition by making , governor of You province , the emperor. However, believing that it would be faithless to Emperor Xian for him to accept, Liu Yu declined the offer. By 191, the confrontation with Dong Zhuo had largely turned into a stalemate and the disunited leaders of the coalition soon disbanded.

Warlord state

In 191, Han Fu, governor of Ji province, gave up the governorship to Yuan Shao in the face of an imminent attack by Gongsun Zan from the north. Yuan Shao then began to build a warlord state from his base city at . He engaged in a general alliance with Liu Biao against his own cousin Yuan Shu so as to focus on the conflicts with Gongsun Zan. In the winter of that year, Yuan Shao successfully defeated the cavalry forces of Gongsun Zan at the Battle of Jieqiao with the use of massed crossbowmen. Yuan Shao then turned southwest to eradicate the Heishan bandits. With the short-term help from Lü Bu, Yuan Shao managed to defeat the bandit leader Zhang Yan and removed the threat to his western flank.

In subsequent years, Yuan Shao achieved considerable success in consolidating his domain and absorbing the smaller powers around him. In 196 his prominent position in northern China was recognized by Emperor Xian, who granted him the position of General-in-Chief and the title of Marquis of Ye, but Yuan Shao turned them down. In 198 Yuan Shao advanced against Gongsun Zan and encircled his remaining force at . By early 199 Gongsun Zan had been defeated for good at the decisive Battle of Yijing and Yuan Shao held absolute power over the four provinces north of the Yellow River. Despite warnings from his advisor Ju Shou that the move could sow seeds for future trouble, Yuan Shao insisted on sending his first-born Yuan Tan away to govern Qing province . Then, after establishing alliance with the Wuhuan tribes on the northern frontier, Yuan Shao eventually turned his attention to Cao Cao, who had been consolidating his power south of the Yellow River.

Battle of Guandu

Both sides made preparations for a decisive battle, which would come to be known as the Battle of Guandu. Towards the end of 199 skirmishes were already being fought at Liyang, a major crossing point of the Yellow River. Cao Cao prepared his defenses around Guandu , slightly south of the river. Heavily outnumbering Cao Cao and holding large cavalry force, Yuan Shao's initial attacks almost overwhelmed his enemy's positions. A strike at Yuan Shao's supply lines in late 200, however, brought the northern army to a collapse. As many of his generals defected, Yuan Shao fled north across the Yellow River with his sons.

His first major defeat was also a decisive one. Thereafter, Yuan Shao lost the initiative and never regained it. In 202, he was again defeated, this time at Cangting . He died shortly after. His first wife, so filled with jealousy, killed his other five consorts and disfigured their faces to prevent them from meeting him in the underworld. True to Ju Shou's previous warning, Yuan Shao's legacy was left to contention between his eldest and youngest sons, Yuan Tan and Yuan Shang. Cao Cao was able to manipulate this internal rivalry, and by 207 had defeated both.

It is said that Cao Cao paid respect to Yuan Shao's tomb after his total annexation of his former countries, Cao Cao was showing remorse in front of his generals and made a comment that it was unavoidable for turning his former friend into an enemy.

Cause of his defeat

Yuan Shao's defeat to Cao Cao at Guandu is cited as an excellent example of how superior tactics and strategy can be used to defeat much larger forces. By using feints, counterattacks and strategic withdrawals, Cao Cao managed to render Yuan Shao's vastly superior manpower useless. It can be said Yuan Shao was simply outsmarted by his former friend Cao Cao. According to some sources, however, his defeat can be attributed to his failure to listen to his advisor Tian Feng. It is said that he lost his chance to defeat Cao Cao early on when he refused to mobilise his army, claiming his son was ill with a toothache.

Some believe Yuan Shao's defeat was caused by senility. They argue that it would explain how a man who managed to become for a good period of time the dominant force in China could suddenly fail so completely. It is highly likely that it was a combination of senility, inability to listen to advice and his unfortunate luck in finding such a cunning foe that was Yuan Shao's downfall.

Cao Cao had once analysed Yuan Shao before the Battle of Guandu. Cao Cao said: Yuan Shao will be defeated during the war.

#He is arrogant, self-centred, and senile;
#His advisers fight against each other;
#His generals have brawn but no brain, Yan Liang and Wen Chou, valiant but stupid in terms of using tactics;
#His sons' rivalry: All 3 brothers can't seem to unite
#he did not respect his officers or troops

These reasons Cao Cao noted were indeed true, Yuan Shao was defeated not long after this analysis.

Modern citations

*Yuan Shao has appeared in Koei's ''Dynasty Warriors'' and ''Dynasty Tactics'' video game series.

*In ''Warriors Orochi'' a crossover game between Dynasty Warriors and ''Samurai Warriors'', Yuan Shao leads a resistance army with the aid of Yukimura Sanada. After his defeat at Cheng Du he and his forces are captured by Orochi, but are rescued by the resistance army led by Zhao Yun. He then joins Zhao Yun in the fight against Orochi.

*Yuan Shao has a minor role in Koei's ''Kessen II'' title. In the game, the Battle of Guandu distracts Cao Cao, allowing Liu Bei, an ally of Yuan Shao and the player's character, to advance to , setting the stage for the game's second level.

*He also is in each of the 11 versions of Koei's strategical simulation, Romance of the Three Kingdoms. He is portrayed very closely to that of his novel persona, and has stats that follow the same pattern as Cao Cao's in the game, but lower.

*He is also mentioned in Squaresoft's '''': There is a location called the Yuanshao Peninsula.

Zhang Fei

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Zhang Fei was a military general of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of China.

Zhang Fei was shown to have been a masterful general rather than simply a warrior. He treated his superiors with respect, but had little respect for his underlings. He was often warned by Liu Bei that his habit of over-punishing his own soldiers by lashing and killing would eventually bring himself disaster.

Zhang Fei married Xiahou Yuan's daughter, who was captured by Zhang Fei's troops as she was out gathering firewood. They had a total of two daughters, and the older daughter became the empress of Shu Han after marrying Liu Shan, with Zhuge Liang as the matchmaker. After Zhang Fei's eldest daughter had passed away due to natural causes, Zhuge Liang once again played the role of matchmaker, and Liu Shan married Zhang Fei's younger daughter, who thus succeeded her older sister to become the empress of Shu Han.

Zhang Fei is best portrayed through his description and actions depicted in ''Records of Three Kingdoms'' biography by Chen Shou. Some claim that Zhang Fei was also an excellent painter.

Zhang Fei was killed by his own men Zhang Da and Fan Jiang, while preparing his troops to attack the rival Eastern Wu to avenge the death of Guan Yu. Zhang Da and Fan Jiang went on to defect to Wu.

Life

To the end of Eastern Han, Zhang Fei, alongside Guan Yu, joined Liu Bei's militia against the Yellow Turbans Rebellion. He then became Liu Bei's bodyguard and such a friend as close as brothers with Liu Bei and Guan Yu that they even often slept on the same bed.

When Liu Bei was chased by Cao Cao's army at the Battle of Changban, Zhang Fei, with twenty cavalries, demolished a bridge to slow Cao Cao's pursuit. Zhang Fei stood beside the broken bridge and shouted in challenge at Cao Cao's army, but no one dared make a move against him. He then destroyed the bridge, giving Liu Bei time to escape.

After the Battle of Red Cliffs, Liu Bei took over the southern part of Jing province and made Zhang Fei the Administrator of . When Liu Bei Zhang Fei was commanded to attack Jiangzhou, where he captured an enemy general, Yan Yan. Facing Zhang's insults, Yan Yan condemned him for invading Yi province. Yan Yan was originally ordered to be executed by the angry Zhang Fei, but Yan Yan's fearlessness of death impressed Zhang Fei and his life was pardoned. Yan Yan then surrendered to Liu Bei.

Zhang Fei's victory during the western expedition resulted in the capture of the whole Yizhou. After resisting the force led by Zhang He of Cao army, Zhang Fei led a force upon Hanzhong, which was under Cao's control then, but failed. After Liu Bei finally annexed the important Hanzhong, Zhang Fei was regarded by many as a proper choice for the Administrator, but Wei Yan was appointed instead, to Zhang Fei's disappointment.

After Liu Bei declared himself the Emperor of Shu-Han, he led an army to retake Jing province, which had been taken by Sun Quan. Zhang Fei was preparing to lead ten thousand men to join the campaign. However, two men in Zhang's camp, Fan Jiang and Zhang Da, assassinated him and carried his head to Eastern Wu. When Liu Bei saw Zhang Fei's assistant who was going to report Zhang's death, he sighed, "Oh! Zhang Fei is dead."

Zhang Fei had two sons, Zhang Bao and Zhang Shao . Zhang Bao died young and Zhang Shao worked as an officer of Shu Han. Zhang Bao's son, Zhang Zun , died resisting the army that eventually ended the southwestern reign of Shu Han.

In fiction

In the historical novel ''Romance of Three Kingdoms'', Zhang Fei is styled Yìdé instead of Yìdé . He was originally a butcher, then eventually became the second member of the Five Tiger Generals. According to the legend, he swore an oath of brotherhood with Liu Bei and Guan Yu, known as the Oath of the Peach Garden. In the novel, he has an obsession with wine that affected his judgement from time to time; however, that is apparently an invention of the author Luo Guanzhong for the novel as Zhang Fei was not known as an alcoholic historically.

At the Battle of Changban, Zhang Fei spotted the tired Zhao Yun and the baby Liu Shan, who Zhao was carrying, pass by. Facing an impending army of thousands, Zhang Fei rode out alone on the Changban Bridge to hold off the pursuing army of Cao Cao to insure Zhao Yun's escape. He glared and pointed his spear, shouting, "I am Zhang Fei of Yan, and anyone who wants to can come and challenge me to fight to the death," which was so effective that it was said to have frightened and held off 10,000 troops and scared Xiahou Jie to immediate death. None of the army dared to proceed and even upon the arrival of Cao Cao himself they were still wavering. Cao Cao, fearing an ambush devised by Zhuge Liang, eventually decided not to attack Zhang Fei.

Zhang Fei, however, was later rebuked by Liu Bei for ordering his soldiers to burn Changban Bridge down so as to delay the pursuit of Cao Cao's forces. Zhang Fei was unhappy about this, and Liu Bei was later proven right when Cao Cao guessed correctly that Zhang Fei had burned the bridge out of fear. Ironically, Zhang Fei had successfully pulled off a ruse against Cao Cao when he commanded his soldiers to attach logs to their horses so as to raise large dust clouds, creating the illusion that Zhang had a large ambush army with him.

Throughout ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', Zhang Fei is shown as exceedingly loyal and known for his strength and skill as a warrior, but also short-tempered, which often got him into problems more often than not on the battlefield. Zhang Fei's fierce sense of loyalty was demonstrated when Guan Yu had left Cao Cao to return to Liu Bei - he had taken refuge when Cao under the condition that he would leave upon discovering his elder brother's whereabouts - and Zhang Fei refused to believe that Guan Yu had not defected to Cao already. Zhang Fei fought with Guan Yu in three fierce rounds, but the latter held back throughout, trying to explain to Zhang the truth. Thankfully, it was resolved without any bloodshed from the brothers.

Zhang Fei had a son , an equally competent general who served the Shu kingdom dutifully. Zhang Bao later personally executed Zhang Da and Fan Jiang, his father's assassins, when Sun Quan, the ruler of Wu, sent them both back to Shu Han as a goodwill gift to negotiate for peace, as Liu Bei had personally led an army against Wu.

Zhang Fei also appears on the Kunqu stage as a hualian. Particularly famous is the scene "The Swaying Reeds", in which he ambushes, humiliates and sets free Zhou Yu.

Zhang Fei had two daughters whom both married Liu Shan, the son of Liu Bei and the second and last ruler of Shu.

Modern depictions

* Zhang Fei appears in multiple video game titles under Koei's umbrella historical simulation series. These include '''', ''Dynasty Warriors'' and ''Dynasty Tactics''. In ''Dynasty Warriors'', he carries a snake spear called the "Viper Blade", which recives another blade at the end in ''Dynasty Warriors 6''.

* He also appears in ''Kessen II'', the one title in the ''Kessen'' series to portray the Three Kingdoms era. In many of these titles, Zhang Fei, just as with other characters of the novel, is exaggerated in personality and appearance. Zhang Fei's drunkenness and brutish bearing are two such embellished traits.

* Zhang Fei was present in ''Warriors Orochi'', in which he and Guan Yu were forced to work for Orochi under the threat that Liu Bei would be executed. He and Guan Yu later reconciled and joined Zhao Yun's Coalition, in an attempt to rescue Liu Bei.

*Zhang Fei also appears in a number of non-Koei titles, such as ''Three Kingdoms: Fate of the Dragon'' and ''Destiny of an Emperor''.

* Zhang Fei is also present in 's , portrayed much as he appears in the novel.

Trivia

*Legend has it, that on the night Zhang Fei was murdered by Zhang Da and Fan Jiang, his assassins found him sleeping with his eyes wide open and were about to abandon their plot, but his snoring revealed that he was indeed asleep. In modern China, when someone sleeps in caution or with half-opened eyes they are sometimes referred to as "Zhang Fei eyes".

*Zhang Fei enjoyed gardening. There are some trees he planted in Chengdu that exist to this day.

Zhang Lu

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Zhang Lu was a warlord during the Three Kingdoms era of China. After his grandfather, and then father, he was the third leader of Tianshi Dao , a religious group. He controlled the Hanzhong region, which he had named Han'ning until 215, when he surrendered to Cao Cao, who he would serve until his death one year later.

Life

Warlord of Hanzhong

Upon the death of his father, , Zhang Lu inherited control of the Celestial Masters religious group, and therefore became its third leader. The religion enjoyed its greatest popularity in Yizhou , but when Zhang Lu took control of the group, it was being challenged in the area by a shamanistic religion lead by Zhang Xiu .

Against this background, both Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu were abruptly ordered by to go together to attack the forces of the official governor of Hanzhong, Su Gu and take over his territory. However, having his own designs, Zhang Lu killed Zhang Xiu and absorbed his armies and religious followers into his own group before he went off for the campaign against Hanzhong. He successfully manged to defeat Su Gu, and upon taking control of Hanzhong, renamed the region Han'ning , ruling it by the principles of his religion. It is worth noting that although he nominally followed the orders of Liu Yan, when succeeded him many years later, Zhang Lu refused to follow Liu Zhang's orders. As a result, Zhang Lu's mother, younger brothers, and many other family members were executed by Liu Zhang.

It is said that Zhang Lu's rulership over his territory was for its time very humane and civilized. Roads were built throughout the territory with rest stops and foods provided free of charge. The taxes and donations taken from the people were not to be used for amusement, but instead for the support of the common people. In addition, under his leadership was a powerful army and strong defences such that neither Cao Cao nor Li Jue could easily defeat him. His authority was recognized by the Han court, who granted him generalship and named him official Governor of Han'ning . According to the Records of Three Kingdoms, he was then presented with a jeweled seal by the common people of his realm, which was a sign from Heaven that he was to become a king. Many of his subordinates urged him to declare himself a king, but his advisor Yan Pu warned that to do so would bring disaster. Zhang Lu heeded his advice.

Surrender to Cao Cao

In the year 211, Zhong Yao, an advisor of Cao Cao, suggested an invasion of Zhang Lu's territory. However, Ma Chao and Han Sui, whose territory was between Cao Cao's and Zhang Lu's, interpreted the massing of forces as an attempt to invade their own lands. They rebelled against Cao Cao, and after much fighting, Cao Cao's forces were victorious. However, they were in no shape to continue the invasion to Hanzhong. Ma Chao retreated to Hanzhong and pledged allegiance to Zhang Lu, who considered marrying his daughter to him. However, a servant of Zhang Lu's, Yang Bo , said, "A man like that, who has no love for even his parents , cannot love another." and the marriage proposal was scrapped. Ma Chao then borrowed soldiers from Zhang Lu and attempted to regain some of his lost territory from Cao Cao, but was ultimately unsuccessful. His failures caused the relationship between the two to sour. When Liu Bei's forces had surrounded Liu Zhang, Ma Chao chose this time to take his leave of Hanzhong, and with his personal army he joined Liu Bei. Ma Chao's subordinate Pang De, however, remained in Zhang Lu's service.

In 215, Cao Cao again launched a campaign to conquer Hanzhong. Initially, Zhang Lu had no hope of standing against Cao Cao's armies, and planned to surrender. His younger brother Zhang Wei, however, insisted on fighting and lead his army against the invading forces. He was soon killed in battle, and again Zhang Lu considered surrendering. His advisor Yan Pu, told him that surrendering so easily, they would have no position to negotiate from. Instead, Zhang Lu retreated to his fortress at Bazhong . When leaving his capital, he did not destroy his wealth and treasures, nor attempt to take them with him, instead leaving them behind saying "These things belong to the country, not to me." Cao Cao was greatly impressed by this, and sent a messenger to Zhang Lu asking him to surrender. Yan Pu's plan was successful, as Zhang Lu and his forces were warmly welcomed by Cao Cao. He was given the title General who Suppresses the South and his five sons were granted the rank of marquis. He married his daughter to the son of Cao Cao, Cao Yu . As further proof of the bad blood between Zhang Lu and Ma Chao, when Cao Cao turned Ma Chao's son Ma Qiu over to Zhang Lu, he immediately executed him.

When Zhang Lu died, not long after surrendering to Cao Cao, he was created a marquis . The Five Pecks of Rice religion was continued by his sons, later to evolve into the Taoist religion known as Zhengyi Dao.

Zhang Lu in ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

In the historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', a fictionalized and dramaticised account of the Three Kingdoms era, Zhang Lu is portrayed as strongly craving the title of King of Han'ning, and attempting to aggressively expand his territory. In the novel he attempts to invade Liu Zhang's Yizhou, only to be stopped. When Ma Chao left his service, he sent a servant Yang Bo along to spy on him. However, when Ma Chao joined Liu Bei, he killed Yang Bo.

Family

*Zhang Daoling
*
*Zhang Wei
*Zhang Fu
*Zhang Cheng
He had three more sons, and one daughter, whose names are not recorded.

Zhang Qian

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Zhang Qian was an imperial envoy to the outside world in the 2nd century BC, during the time of the Han Dynasty. He was the first official diplomat to bring back reliable information about Central Asia to the Chinese imperial court, then under Emperor Wu of Han, and played an important pioneering role in the Chinese colonization and conquest of the region now known as Xinjiang.

Today Zhang Qian's travels are associated with the major route of transcontinental trade, the Silk Road. In essence, his missions opened up to China the many kingdoms and products of an unknown and new part of the world. Zhang Qian's accounts of his explorations of Central Asia are detailed in the Early Han historical chronicles , compiled by Sima Qian in the 1st century BC . Today Zhang Qian is considered a national hero for the key role he played in opening China to the world of commercial trade.

Zhang Qian's Missions

Zhang Qian was born just east of Hanzhong in the north central province of Shaanxi, China. in modern Tajikistan. However to get to the territory of the Yuezhi he was forced to pass through land controlled by the Xiongnu who captured him and enslaved him for ten years. During this time he married a Xiongnu wife and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader.

Zhang and Ganfu were eventually able to escape and, passing Lop Nor and following the northern edge of the Tarim Basin, around the Kunlun Mountains and through small fortified areas in the middle of oases in what is now Xinjiang until they made their way to Dayuan and eventually to the land of the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi were agricultural people who produced strong horses and many unknown crops including alfalfa for animal fodder. However, the Yuezhi were too settled to desire war against the Xiongnu. Zhang spent a year in Yuezhi and the adjacent Bactrian territory, documenting their cultures, lifestyles and economy, before beginning his return trip to China, this time following the southern edge of the Tarim Basin.. Upon Zhang Qian's return to China he was honoured with a position of palace counselor. Although he was unable develop commercial ties between China and these far-off lands, his efforts did eventually result in trade mission to the Wu-sun people in 119 BC which led to trade between China and .

On his mission Zhang Qian had noticed products from an area now known as northern India However, the task remained to find a trade route not obstructed by the Xiongnue to India. Zhang Qian set out on a second mission to forge a route from China to India via Sichuan, but after many attempts this effort proved unsuccessful. In 115 BC Zhang Qian was sent on a third mission by the emperor, to develop ties with the Wusun people living southeast of Lake Balkhash in what is now theIli Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture.

Although Zhang Quian's journeys had promoted a great variety of economic and cultural exchanges between the Han Dynasty and the Western Regions, because silk was the dominant product traded this trade link became known as the Silk Route.

Zhao Xin

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Zhao Xin , was originally a marquis of Xiongnu stock, who previously surrendered to the Han Dynasty. His name Zhao Xin was probably adopted through during his service at Han. He was one of the six generals led by Wei Qing during an expedition in 123 BC, and led a 3,000-strong vanguard forces along with fellow general Su Jian. Upon clashing with the Xiongnu forces, he defected back to Xiongnu, while Su Jian managed to escape after his forces were annihilated. A Xiongnu fortress named after him was constructed near the Khangai Mountains, soon after his submission to Yixixie Chanyu. That fortress was later completely destroyed by Wei Qing's forces during the finishing phase of the Battle of Mobei.

Zheng Ji (Han Dynasty general)

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Zheng Ji , born in , was a general during Han Dynasty, and served the first Protector General of the Western Regions in the 60 BC.

Zhou Yafu

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Zhou Yafu was a renowned Han Dynasty general who put down the Rebellion of the Seven States, but whose honesty and integrity eventually cost him the favor of and his life. Zhou is viewed in Chinese history as the epitome of proper military discipline.

Early career

Zhou's father, Zhou Bo was one of the key generals for Liu Bang during the Chu Han Contention who would continue to play important roles in government and who was instrumental in the ascension to the throne by Emperor Jing's father . For his accomplishments, Zhou Bo was created the Marquess of Jiang. After Zhou Bo died in 169 BC, his son and Zhou Yafu's older brother Zhou Shengzhi inherited the , but after one year he was accused of murder and executed. In his stead, Zhou Yafu was created a marquess, but of a different march . Later made the governor of the Commandery of Taiyuan , Zhou quickly gained the reputation of being a capable administrator and military commander.

In 158 BC, when Xiongnu made a major incursion into the Commanderies of Shang and Yunzhong , Emperor Wen made a visit to the camps of armies preparing to defend the capital Chang'an against a potential Xiongnu attack. It was on this occasion when he became impressed with Zhou as a military commander -- compared to the other generals, who, upon the emperor's arrival, dropped all things and did what they could to make the emperor feel welcome, Zhou remained on military alert and required the imperial guards to submit to proper military order before he would allow the imperial train to enter. Later, Emperor Wen would leave instructions for Crown Prince Liu Qi that if military emergencies arose, he should make Zhou his commander of armed forces.

Actions during the Rebellion of the Seven States

After Crown Prince Qi became emperor in 157 BC, a military emergency would in fact arise. Afraid of the princes of collateral lines of the imperial clan becoming overly powerful, Emperor Jing, under the advice of Chao Cuo , attempted to reduce the size of the principalities, and seven principalities, led by the powerful Principalities of Wu and Chu rebelled in a war later known as the Rebellion of the Seven States. In accordance with Emperor Wen's instructions, Emperor Jing made Zhou the commander of the armed forces. At that time, the Wu and Chu forces were fiercely attacking the Principality of Liang , whose prince Liu Wu was Emperor Jing's beloved younger brother, and Emperor Jing ordered Zhou to immediately head to Liang to save it. Zhou refused, reasoning that the proper strategy would involve first cutting off the Wu and Chu supply lines, thus starving them, so he headed to the northeast side of Liang and around the Wu and Chu forces to cut off their supplies. The strategy was effective. Wu and Chu, unable to capture Liang quickly and realizing that their supplies were dwindling, headed northeast to attack Zhou. After being unable to get a decisive victory against Zhou, the Wu and Chu forces collapsed from starvation. Liu Pi fled to Donghai, which killed him and sought peace with Han. Liu Wu, the Prince of Chu, committed suicide. The other principalities involved were all eventually defeated as well. Zhou's effective strategy was praised and admired by the other generals, but not by Prince Wu of Liang, who would bear a grudge against Zhou for the rest of their lives for Zhou's refusal to save him first. His cause was also taken up by his and Emperor Jing's mother, , who favored her young son greatly.

Post-Rebellion career

In the aftermaths of the war, Zhou was made prime minister and became well-trusted by Emperor Jing. After Zhou unsuccessfully tried to persuade Emperor Jing not to Liu Rong in 150 BC, however, Zhou lost the favor of the emperor. Prince Wu and Empress Dowager Dou, still bearing grudges, also attacked him incessantly whenever they could. Soon, joining their side would be Emperor Jing's empress and her brother Wang Xin, whom Empress Dowager Dou wanted to create a marquess but whose candidacy was repeatedly rebuffed by Zhou. After a further disagreement over policy with Xiongnu defectors -- Emperor Jing wanted to bestow them with honors to encourage future Xiongnu defectors while Zhou, opining that they were traitors, wanted to simply let them live in obscurity -- Emperor Jing removed Zhou as prime minister in 147 BC.

Death

In 143 BC, on one occasion, Zhou was summoned to dinner with the emperor, when the emperor had a large piece of meat placed before him, but not cut into small pieces, and no chopsticks were provided to him. Zhou requested chopsticks from the imperial attendants. Emperor Jing looked at him and smiled and said, "Are you not satisfied?" Zhou saw that this was a setup, and immediately apologized and withdrew. After he left, Emperor Jing made the comment, "This complainer is no subject for my son when he becomes emperor!"

Later that year, when Zhou's son, in anticipation of his death, purchased retired armor and weapons from the imperial armory to serve as burial decorations. Zhou's son refused to pay the delivery workers, and the delivery workers, in retaliation, accused the Zhous of treason because at the time unauthorized purchase of weapons was treated as treason and punishable by death. Emperor Jing sent investigators to interrogate Zhou, who refused to talk to them. Offended, Emperor Jing had Zhou Yafu arrested and interrogated in prison, and the interrogator, when told by Zhou that the armor and weapons were for burial purposes, accused him of "underground treason" -- i.e., ready to commit treason against the spirits of the emperors after he himself dies. Zhou, who initially wanted to commit suicide when he was arrested but was persuaded not to by his wife, eventually committed suicide in prison by starvation.

Impact on Chinese history

Zhou's legacy in history is mixed. He is greatly admired for his military strategies, but even more so for his style of military discipline. He also is admired for his honesty and integrity. Those same characteristics, however, would eventually lead to his terrible fate, for they caused him to offend powerful individuals that he could not afford to offend -- including, eventually, the emperor himself. His death was also one black mark on the otherwise highly regarded reign of Emperor Jing.

Zhou Yu

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Zhou Yu was a famous and one of the most capable military strategists for Sun Ce and his successor Sun Quan during the Three Kingdoms era; the turbulent years leading to the end of Han Dynasty in China.

Life

Early life

Zhou Yu was born in . Zhou Yu was born into a cultured family that produced many officials, and when Sun Jian was attacking Dong Zhuo, he moved his family to live together with Zhou Yu's family. Sun Jian's son Sun Ce and Zhou Yu studied together and became lifelong friends. Soon, Zhou Yu's uncle became the governor of Danyang, and the whole family relocated to Danyang, where they served Yuan Shu.

Sun Ce, under a commission from Yuan Shu, entered Yangzhou in order to aid his relatives, Wu Jing and Sun Ben, who were attacked by . Zhou Yu and his uncle, Zhou Shang, were among the first to join Sun Ce's army, superseded only by a fellow officer of Yuan Shu, Lü Fan, and the former retainers of Sun Jian. After Sun Ce defeated Liu Yao and his allies, Zhou Yu and his uncle were summoned to return to Yuan Shu while Sun Ce continued his conquests.

In 197, confident that he had Sun Ce's support, Yuan Shu declared himself Emperor. Sun Ce, citing loyalty to , declared independence and allied with Lü Bu, Cao Cao, and Liu Bei to oppose his former master. It was at this time that Zhou Yu returned to Sun Ce's army, this time bringing a wealthy merchant named Lu Su, who would go on to serve the Sun family as Zhou Yu's successor.

It was around this time that Zhou Yu and Sun Ce wed the Two Qiaos, daughters of Qiao Xuan, a famed scholar and critic. Very soon afterwards, Sun Ce and Zhou Yu pacified most of Yangzhou Province south of Yangtze and extended their power both south into the native Yue area and north into the Huai River region, defeating Liu Xun and the remnant forces of Yuan Shu in the north as well as Huang Zu and the forces of Liu Biao to the west.

Campaigns against Huang Zu and Cao Cao

In 200, Sun Ce was assassinated and he passed down his power to his brother, Sun Quan. Zhou Yu took over the military affairs while Zhang Zhao was given the domestic affairs. Around this time, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao and he demanded that Sun Quan send a family member hostage. Zhou Yu advised against sending a hostage. This raised Zhou Yu's respect within the Sun family, and he was treated as an elder brother by Sun Quan. In 206, Zhou Yu attacked the local bandits and captured over ten thousand people and resettled them. Then he repelled an attack by Liu Biao and captured enemy general Deng Long.

In 208, Sun Quan ordered an attack on Jiangxia, which was protected by the Sun family's nemesis, Huang Zu. Zhou Yu led the navy, and along with Gan Ning, Lü Meng, Dong Xi and Xu Sheng, defeated Huang Zu at Xiakou, killing him. It was not shortly thereafter that Cao Cao began a general campaign aimed at wiping out all opposition in southern China and reunify the empire. As his army conquered Jingzhou and was closing in on Sun Quan, Sun Quan's court was divided on the issue of whether to surrender or resist. Sun Quan consulted Zhou Yu, who replied: "Although Cao Cao pretends to be a minister of Han, he is actually a thief who is attempting to steal the empire from Han. Your majesty, with your brilliant talent and your father and brother's military prowess, have ruled and pacified Eastern Wu. The territory stretches thousand of '''', the soldier are well trained, brilliant advisors of great talents are at your disposal. It is the time to get rid Cao Cao and help the Han dynasty to reunify China. Cao Cao came down south and presented himself as an opportunity for you, your majesty. Now I will analyse for you the dire situation Cao Cao has placed himself into: Even if the north has been completely unified, can Cao Cao's ground based army fight against our superior navy and marines? The truth is that the north has not been completely pacified. Ma Chao will remain a thorn in Cao Cao's flesh. Cao Cao's superior cavalry is useless against the mountainous and watery terrain of the south. Winter is upon us, and yet Cao Cao's large army has to depend on a long supply line halfway across China. Cao Cao's army are mainly composed of northerners, and they are not used to the environment of the south, thus they will easily become sick. With all of these problems, I promise you that with thirty thousand men, I can easily break him." Greatly relieved, Sun Quan decided to fight.

The famous Battle of Red Cliffs ensued. Contrary to popular belief, Zhuge Liang did not contribute much and Zhou Yu was the supreme commander of the united forces against Cao Cao. In this battle, a series of stratagems were employed by Zhou Yu to destroy Cao Cao's giant fleet. Huang Gai proposed a plan in which he pretended to surrender to Cao Cao and infiltrated Cao Cao's camp. There, he set his own ships on fire and rammed them into Cao Cao's ships before jumping into the river. Much of Cao Cao's ships were destroyed and Cao Cao was forced to flee back to Xuchang.

Afterwards, Zhou Yu led his army in pursue and laid siege to the strategic town of Nanjun . While on the front lines, Zhou Yu was struck by a stray arrow and seriously wounded. He withdrew from the frontlines, leaving Cheng Pu, who had shared command responsibilities with Zhou Yu, to command the siege. Cao Ren, the defending general, heard of Zhou Yu's wounds and attempted to launch a counterattack, but Zhou Yu personally inspected his troops and sent them into battle, nearly slaying Cao Ren's officer, Niu Jin. After a year of siege, Nanjun was taken and Zhou Yu was named Governor of Nanjun.

Death

In 210, Zhou Yu proposed to Sun Quan his plan to attack Liu Zhang of Yizhou and unify all of southern China under Sun Quan against northern China under Cao Cao. Further, he proposed an alliance with Zhang Lu of Hanzhong and Ma Chao of Xiliang, whom Zhou Yu correctly predicted would soon oppose Cao Cao . While preparing for the long expedition, he died at age thirty-five in Baqiu .

He was buried in his ancestral home in Lujiang. He was succeeded in his military command by Lu Su and in his nobility rank by his eldest son, .

Qualities

Zhou Yu was intelligent and young, and he was also considered a very handsome man by his contemporaries. He was very open and made friends with his humbleness. Cheng Pu was an elder general of Sun Jian and he made fun of Zhou Yu's youth. Yet Zhou Yu took all of the abuse stoically and they eventually became great friends. He was a man of many talents, who was also well versed in music and poems. There was a saying at that time: "Should the tune be in error, Zhou Yu takes note."

He was also famous for his loyalty. Even though Sun Quan saw Zhou Yu as an older brother, Zhou Yu never crossed the line, and he always served Sun Quan with humility and care.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms and classical culture

In Luo Guanzhong's historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', Zhou Yu was portrayed as a jealous man who relentlessly tried—and failed—to outwit Zhuge Liang. Furthermore, his role was deliberately overshadowed by Zhuge Liang, especially in the Battle of Red Cliffs. For example, the arrow-stealing ploy employed by Zhuge Liang is attributed to Sun Quan in many other texts. Zhuge Liang even causes Zhou Yu's death: having been poisoned by in a previous ambush, Zhou Yu is thrice provoked by Zhuge Liang and dies a bitter man, his last words being: "Having born Yu, whyfore also Liang?"

On the Kunqu stage, Zhou Yu appears as a zhiweisheng, as in the scene "The Swaying Reeds", where he is captured and ultimately set free by Zhang Fei.

In Chinese opera, Zhou Yu is played by the ''xiaosheng'' or ''wusheng'' , even when sharing the stage with Zhuge Liang, who was actually the younger of the two.

Modern references

*In the anime series ''Ikki Tousen'', the character of ''Shuuyu Koukin'' is roughly based upon Zhou Yu. His cousin and ward, , is based on Zhou Yu's close friend Sun Ce. Like his counterpart in ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', Shuuyu Koukin resents Zhuge Liang, though for a different reason.

*In the anime series ''Koutetsu Sangokushi'', Zhou Yu was not able to prevent Sun Ce's assassination, but serves as Sun Quan's level-headed advisor and admiral, as well as something of a story foil to the more impulsive and brash Taishi Ci .

*In the Koei video game series ''Dynasty Warriors'' , Zhou Yu is portrayed as a powerful, highly intelligent and handsome man. He wears a red gown with gold decorations and wields a very long, lavishly decorated called the "Elder's Sword." In ''Dynasty Warriors 6'' he has a ponytail and wields a bo staff.

*In Warriors Orochi, he was a prisoner of Orochi but was freed by his best friend Sun Ce. He fought alongside him and helped him search for his father Sun Jian. In the Shu storyline, Zhou Yu fought alongside Sun Ce against Sima Yi. They were in danger of being captured but Zhao Yun, Yukimura Sanada and their allies came to their aid. In the Wei storyline he is seen on a ship alongside Sun Ce after Cao Pi allows them to escape. He also aided Nobunaga in the battle against Orochi by orders of Sun Ce, but Zhou Yu said it was Nobunaga that inspired him to fight Orochi.

*A film currently showing in theatre titled '''', directed by John Woo featured Tony Leung Chiu Wai as Zhou Yu.

Family

*Great grandfather
**Zhou Rong - the Imperial Secretary in charge of reading and interpreting reports to the emperor.

*Grandfather
**Zhou Jing - first the governor of Yuzhou , and then became Imperial Secretary and finally Imperial Minister of Defence .

*Father
**Zhou Yi - Mayor of the capital city Luoyang.

*Uncle
**Zhou Shang - the Grand Administrator of Danyang

*Wife
**Xiao Qiao

*Children
**Zhou Xun - succeeded Zhou Yu's rank of nobility and was said to possess his father's talents, and he was married to Sun Quan's eldest daughter Sun Dahu . He died suddenly and was succeeded by his younger brother.
**Zhou Yin - succeeded Zhou Xun
**A daughter, Zhou Ying, was married to Sun Deng, Sun Quan's eldest son.

*Nephew
**Zhou Jun - served Wu as a notable military officer and participated in numerous battles under the command of Lu Xun .

*Sworn Brother and brother in law
**Sun Ce

Qiao Xuan

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Qiao Xuan (108-183, styled Gongzu , of Suiyang , Liang Kingdom . He was a high official near the end of Eastern Han.

Biography

Qiao Xuan was of gentry, scholarly background. In his youth, as minor official , when Inspector of Yu Province Zhou Jing was passing by Liang, Qiao Xuan reported to him the crimes of Chancellor of Chen Yang Chang . Zhou Jing sent Qiao Xuan to investigate. Xuan thoroughly listed Yang Chang's crimes. Because Chang was an intimate of Commander-in-Chief Liang Ji, Liang Ji sent an urgent letter to release Yang Chang. Scared, Zhou Jing called off Qiao Xuan. Qiao Xuan returned to letter, he locked up Yang Chang and sent him back to Luoyang on a prison cart. Because of that, he became famous.

After that, he was nominated as suitable for office and was appointed to a minor post in Luoyang. Liang Buyi , Liang Ji's brother, was Xuan superior and humiliated him. Xuan gave up his office.

Later on, he was appointed Chancellor of Qi . He committed a fault, and was sent to do hard labor. Punishment completed, he was appointed Administrator of Shanggu , then Administrator of Hanyang . Prefect of Shanggui Huangfu Zhen was corrupted and enriched himself excessively. Qiao Xuan had him executed.

In 170, he was appoint Minister of Works . A year after, he was made Minister over the Masses .

Qiao Xuan was generous and supportive of Cao Cao in his youth -- a gratitude Cao Cao didn't forget when he was at the peak of his power .

Ren Shang

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Ren Shang , was the Protector General of the Western Regions under Eastern Han between 102-106. In February, 91, he and Geng Kui defeated the unnamed shortly after the Battle of Ikh Bayan, on commission by Dou Xian. In 93, he killed the last northern chanyu, Yuchujian Chanyu during a pursuit with . A Chinese inscription stele of him, 汉任尚纪功铭 was excavated in 1957 from Kumul, Xinjiang, which inscribed the event in 93.

Shi Xie

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Shi Xie , Weiyan, was a man from Guangxin. Shi Xie served as Imperial Secretariat Cadet, from which he later resigned. After his father's death, Shi Xie was removed from prefect of Wu and became the Grand Administrator of Jiao Zhi province during the Later Han. Shi Xie was a scholar who would often enjoy reading the ''Spring and Autumn Annals.'' In the year 210 AD, Shi Xie submitted to Sun Quan. Shi Xie regularly sent an envoy to Sun Quan of the Wu Kingdom. Shi Xie had been in office for over forty years. He died at the age of 90 sui, or 89 years in Western recognition, in the fifth year of Huang Wu . After Shi Xie's death, Sun Quan thought the region was too far away and cut the province. Jiaozhi was then its own province. Lu Dai was named inspector of the Jiaozhi province and Chen Shi the new Grand Administrator. In response to this Shi Xie's son, Shi Hui, took his father's position of Grand Administrator. Shi Hui refused Lu Dai and Chen Shi to enter the province. Nevertheless Lu Dai had an imperial decree that allowed the execution of Shi Hui. Shi Kuang was sent to persuade Shi Hui to allow Lu Dai to enter. The next day, Shi Hui and his accomplices were murdered. Later, the rest of the Shi family was reduced to common status.

Sun Ce

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Sun Ce was a military general and warlord during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era in ancient China. He was the eldest of five sons and one daughter of Sun Jian, who was killed in battle when Sun Ce was only sixteen. Sun Ce then broke away from his father's former overlord Yuan Shu and headed into Southeastern China to establish his own power base there. With the help of several capable men, including Zhang Zhao and Zhou Yu, Sun Ce managed to lay down the foundation of the later Eastern Wu, of which his younger brother Sun Quan eventually became the first . After Sun Quan declared himself emperor, he posthumously honored Sun Ce with the title Prince Huan of Changsha .

In 200, when the rising warlord Cao Cao was away battling Yuan Shao in the decisive Battle of Guandu, Sun Ce was rumored to be plotting an attack against Cao Cao's capital of Xuchang. However, he was assassinated before he could carry out the plan.

The '''' describes Sun Ce as handsome and full of laughter. He was also a generous and receptive man who could employ people according to their abilities. Thus his subjects were willing to risk their lives for him. One detractor named Xu Gong, in a letter to , likened Sun Ce to Xiang Yu, the general renowned for overthrowing Qin Dynasty . As Xiang Yu was often referred to as the Conqueror of Chu, Sun Ce henceforth became known as the Little Conqueror in popular culture.

Life

Early life and career

Born in 175, Sun Ce was the eldest among five sons and one daughter of Sun Jian, a military general loyal to the of the Han Dynasty. In 190, a year after died, the warlord Dong Zhuo usurped power, placing in the throne the puppet . Regional warlords in eastern China then formed a coalition against Dong Zhuo. Sun Jian rendered his service to Yuan Shu, one of the leaders of the coalition. The attempt to oust Dong Zhuo soon failed and China slid into a series of massive civil wars. In the next year, Sun Jian was sent by Yuan Shu to attack Liu Biao, governor of , but he was killed in an ambush.

Sun Ce brought his father's body to Qu'e for burial and settled his mother down before heading for Danyang , where his uncle Wu Jing was the governor. There he raised a small militia a few hundred in strength. This small force was far from sufficient for him to establish his own power so in 194 Sun Ce went to Yuan Shu. Yuan Shu was very impressed with Sun Ce and often lamented that he had no son like him. He also returned Sun Jian's former division of troops to Sun Ce.

Initially, Yuan Shu promised to appoint Sun Ce the governor of Jiujiang but eventually gave the governorship to Chen Ji. Later, when Yuan Shu was denied a large loan of grains from the governor of , he sent Sun Ce to attack the latter, promising to make Sun Ce the governor of Lujiang should he succeed. When Sun Ce did, however, Yuan Shu again went back on his words and appointed someone else instead. The disappointed Sun Ce then began to contemplate leaving.

Meanwhile, , who was by imperial decree the governor of , occupied Qu'e as the regional seat Shouchun was already occupied by Yuan Shu. He then forced Wu Jing back west across the Yangtze River to However, Yuan Shu claimed to be the rightful governor and sent Wu Jing and Sun Ce's elder cousin Sun Ben to attack Liu Yao. After they were unable to break down the defense for more than a year, Sun Ce requested to lead a force to assist the effort.

A kingdom's beginning

Though Yuan Shu knew Sun Ce intended to leave, he believed the latter would not be able to defeat Liu Yao. Thus he deployed the young general off with merely a thousand odd troops and a tiny cavalry force. Along with a few hundred more willing followers, Sun Ce proceeded to Liyang, where he boosted his strength to more than 5,000. He then launched an offensive across the Yangtze River and successfully occupied the strategic position of Niuzhu in 195.

Two of Liu Yao's allies then came south from Pengcheng and Xiapi respectively to aid him. Sun Ce chose to first attack one of them, Ze Rong, who made camp south of Moling. After suffering initial defeat in the hands of the aggressor, Ze Rong fell back in defense and refused to engage in battle. Sun Ce then marched further north and attacked Xue Li in Moling. Although Xue Li soon gave up the city and escaped, Liu Yao's subject Fan Neng and others had regrouped their forces and launched a renewed attack on Niuzhu. Turning back, Sun Ce defeated Fan Neng and secured Niuzhu. He then began a second offensive against Ze Rong. However, he was struck by a stray arrow in the thigh. Returning to Niuzhu, he sent out false words that he was killed in battle. The exalted Ze Rong then sent a force to attack. Sun Ce led the enemies into an ambush and annihilated them. When Ze Rong heard that Sun Ce was still alive, he further reinforced his defense works.

Sun Ce then temporarily gave up attacking Ze Rong and focused his forces on Qu'e. After all the surrounding areas were taken over by Sun Ce, Liu Yao gave up the city and escaped south to Yuzhang , where he would later die. As Sun Ce implemented strict discipline among his troops, he won the instant support of the local people and gathered many talented men, such as , Zhou Tai, Jiang Qin, Zhang Zhao, Zhang Hong, Qin Song, and Lü Fan. He then pushed his force deeper into Yangzhou and conquered Kuaiji , whose governor Wang Lang surrendered. Sun Ce made Kuaiji his base city and struck out at the wandering bandit army led by Yan Baihu. Yan Baihu sent his younger brother Yan Yu to offer Sun Ce a position alongside Yan Baihu, but Sun Ce showed no mercy and personally slew the emissary. As Yan Yu was known among Yan Baihu's men as a fierce warrior, his death struck fear into their hearts and they were soon defeated. Sun Ce then appointed his relatives and a trusted subject to govern Danyang and Yuzhang, from which he divided a new commandery named . His campaign, from the occupation of Niuzhu to the conquest of the entire region southeast of the Long River, took less than a year. He then defeated and received the services of Zu Lang , the Chief of Danyang, and Taishi Ci, the leader of the remnants of Liu Yao's forces; he then urged the surrender of Hua Xin, another one of the remnants of Liu Yao's forces. Thus, with the exception of the scattered but still numerous army of Yan Baihu, the lands south of the Yangtze were mostly pacified.

The barbarians of Shanyue tribe, however, were not easily dealt with. To counter the frequent rebellions of the Shanyue , Sun Ce appointed a certain He Qi to a military rank with orders to subdue the Shanyue. He Qi would go on to become a highly successful general; truly, his appointment by Sun Ce was the first important step to Wu's eventual subjugation of the Shanyue.

Late life

In 195, Yuan Shu declared himself the unrecognised "Zhongjia" Emperor. In a letter to Yuan Shu, Sun Ce denounced the move and broke ties with the former. In an effort to garner support from Sun Ce, the rising warlord Cao Cao then recommended him to be appointed the Rebellions-Suppressing General and enfeoffed as Marquis of Wu . In 199 Yuan Shu died of sickness along with his short-lived dynasty. His cousin Yuan Yin feared Cao Cao and gave up Shouchun. Bringing along Yuan Shu's coffin and his former troops, he headed to Huancheng to seek refuge under Liu Xun . As Liu Xun had insufficient food supplies in his realm to support the additional troops, he led a force south to pillage Haihun .

Sun Ce was en route to attack Huang Zu, who was Sun Jian's killer, in Xiakou when he received the news. He then turned back and captured the poorly defended Huancheng, taking over all of Yuan Shu's 30,000 former troops. Hearing that his base city had been taken, Liu Xun headed west and sought help from Huang Zu, who sent a 5,000-strong naval force to assist him. Sun Ce pressed forward and defeated Liu Xun, who escaped north to Cao Cao. Sun Ce annexed more than 2,000 former troops and 1,000 ships of his enemy and came upon Huang Zu. Despite reinforcements from Liu Biao, Huang Zu was utterly defeated. During the battle, Sun Ce slew Liu Biao's officer, Han Xi , and completely routed Huang Zu's son, Huang She .

The victorious Sun Ce in 199 looked poised to take over the entire southern China. As he was threatened by rival Yuan Shao in the north and could not divide his attention, Cao Cao attempted to further reinforce the alliance with Sun Ce by marrying the daughter of his relative Cao Ren to Sun Ce's youngest brother Sun Kuang. Sun Ce in turn agreed to marry Sun Ben's daughter to Cao Cao's son Cao Zhang.

The former governor of Wu Commandery Xu Gong, had long opposed Sun Ce. Xu Gong wrote to Emperor Xian, recommending the emperor to summon Sun Ce to the capital as he deemed Sun Ce to be a hero comparable to Xiang Yu and too dangerous to be allowed to occupy a territory. However, the letter was intercepted by an official loyal to Sun Ce, who attacked and then had Xu Gong executed. Xu Gong's former servants then kept a low profile and waited for chance to revenge.

In the year 200, Cao Cao engaged in the decisive Battle of Guandu with Yuan Shao along the shores of the Yellow River, leaving the capital and his base city Xuchang poorly guarded. Sun Ce is said to have then plotted to attack Xuchang under the banner of rescuing Emperor Xian, who was a figurehead held under Cao Cao's control. Preparations were underway for the military excursion when Sun Ce ran into three former servants of Xu Gong during a solo hunting trip. One of them managed to plant an arrow into Sun Ce's cheek before Sun Ce's men arrived and slew the assassins. Many differing accounts of Sun Ce's death exist . One generally accepted scenario is that he died that same night.

Another possible scenario has Sun Ce living for quite some time. The physician told Sun Ce to rest still for a hundred days to allow the wound to heal, but Sun Ce looked into the mirror one day and, seeing his scar, became so enraged that he slammed his table. The large movement caused the wound to break and he died in the same night. Although he was survived by one son, Sun Ce passed his legacy to his younger brother Sun Quan. When Sun Quan declared himself the first of the Kingdom of Wu in 222, he bestowed upon Sun Ce the posthumous title of Prince Huan of Changsha .

Sun Ce was succeeded by a posthumous son, , as well as at least two daughters, married to Gu Shao and later Zhu Ji , and respectively. Sun Shao bore one son, Sun Feng , who was executed by Sun Hao for alleged treason due to his popularity.

Dispute over cause of death

Sun Sheng in his ''Exposition on Disparities and Similarities'' discounted the theory that Sun Ce made plans to attack Xuchang. He believed that although Sun Ce was a rising power, he was threatened in the west by Huang Zu, who was defeated but not eliminated, in the north by Chen Deng, governor of , and in the south by indigenous tribes yet to be assimilated. These prevented Sun Ce from striking far out at Xuchang and moving the emperor to southeastern China. He further argued that Sun Ce died in the fourth month of 200, before the Battle of Guandu even took place.

The annotator of the ''Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms'' Pei Songzhi rebutted Sun Sheng, arguing that Huang Zu was newly broken and had yet to recollect his forces while the indigenous tribes were scattered and not much of a threat. Pei Songzhi believed that the first objective of Sun Ce's planned northward excursion was to attack Chen Deng, which would provide a platform for capturing Xuchang. On the other hand, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao had been engaging in skirmishes and small-scale battles before Sun Ce's death. Thus there was in fact no discrepancy in timing.

A historically implausible legend regarding Sun Ce's death involves a popular priest of his time named Gan Ji , whom he regarded as a sorcerer. Despite petitions from his subjects and his own mother, Sun Ce ordered Gan Ji's execution. According to ''In Search of the Supernatural'' by Gan Bao , a compilation largely based on legends and hearsay, Sun Ce began to see apparitions of Gan Ji ever since the execution of the latter. After he was injured by assassins, Sun Ce was told by the physician to rest still to allow the wound to heal. However, he looked into the mirror one day and saw Gan Ji's face, whereupon he let out a cry and slammed the mirror. His wound broke and he died shortly. This version was adopted and further dramatized by Luo Guanzhong in his historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', in which Gan Ji's name was taken to be "Yu Ji" .

Sun Ce in art

Chinese opera

In Peking opera, Sun Ce's role is usually that of a hero or tragic hero, while his brother, Sun Quan is usually portrayed as a villain at worst or self-seeking at best. Several operas even toy with the idea that Quan had Cè assassinated so that he could take control of the warlord state, though there is no historical evidence to support this view. In the opera ''Fenghuang Er Qiao'', Sun Ce borrows 3,000 troops from Yuan Shu and allies with the Qiao army, which is led by the Two Qiaos. Sun Ce, the protagonist of the opera, eventually gains the Elder Qiao's hand in marriage through a martial arts contest with the help of Zhou Yu and the Younger Qiao.

Comics and anime

In the anime ''Yokoyama Mitsuteru Sangokushi'', Sun Ce fights alongside his father against Dong Zhuo and is befriended by Liu Bei, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei, with whom he trains to become a hero. When Sun Jian finds the Imperial Seal and decides to keep it for himself, Sun Ce is troubled by his father's actions and leaves him, seeking advice from Liu Bei. Liu Bei convinces him that his father likely has a good reason for holding onto the Imperial Seal, and Sun Ce returns just in time to save his father from an attack made by Yuan Shao and help him escape. The rest of Sun Ce's actions, including his passing, are mentioned only in passing.

The character in ''Ikki Tousen'' is loosely based on the historical figure Sun Ce . Her guardian, , bears the same name and personality as Zhou Yu.

In the anime ''Kōtetsu Sangokushi'', Sun Ce is portrayed as a once kind-hearted and virtuous hero who was corrupted by the power of the Imperial Seal, causing him to kill its protector. It is later revealed that Zhuge Liang was the mastermind behind Sun Ce's assassination and later events in the series.

In the Chinese manhua ''Ravages of Time'', Sun Ce is a cunning, ruthless, and manipulative character. He hires Zhao Yun to assist him in retrieving the Imperial Seal from Yuan Shu, but a last minute ambush by Gan Ning supposedly kills Sun Ce right in front of Zhao Yun, who is surrounded and barely escapes. It is later revealed that Sun Ce is alive and well, having posed as a relative, and that the man slain was his double, Ling Cao. In addition, Sun Ce had foreseen the ambush and saw it as a way to be rid of any sort of commitment to pay Zhao Yun. He is also very talented in martial art as he easily kills two generals of Liu Yao and then fights to a tie with Taishi Ci, who makes a good impression to him. Later, he asks one of his loyal men to desecrate Ling Cao's grave and pretends as if it was a revenge of their enemy, therefore, the spirits of his troops greatly rises and they easily broke the enemy force although they were outnumbered. He frankly admits his ruthless action to Ling Cao's son and swears that if there is justice, he will be killed painfully as he deserves.

Video games

Sun Ce also appears as a playable character in the popular ''Dynasty Warriors'' video game series by Koei. In the third, fourth, and fifth installments of the game, he wields a pair of bamboo tonfa called the "Overlords," and is portrayed as energetic, outgoing, brash, and informal. Although charismatic and well-liked by his troops, he relies on the wisdom and responsibility of his friend, Zhou Yu, to keep him focused and on track. In ''Dynasty Warriors 5'', Sun Ce meets his death due to a curse placed on him by the sorcerer Yu Ji, after Sūn orders his execution. He is succeeded by his brother, Quan, who in stark contrast to Ce, is stolid and detached. Sūn Quan often calls on the strength of his late father and brother during combat, attributing his ability and skill to the spirits of his fallen family guiding his hand.

In ''Dynasty Warriors 6'', Sun Ce's weapon is a single-hooked spear and dons armor similar to that of the ancient Greek muscle cuirass. Although not having a storyline, he is one of the key characters to almost all the Wu storylines, as well as apprearing often in cutscenes. His death in the game was commonly due to ambush with arrow shots at the back, at the exact moment Sun Ce claimed victory.

Sun Ce also makes an appearance in the spin off game, "Warriors Orochi", a combination of the Dynasty and Samurai Warriors series. In the game, Orochi uses the captive Sun Jian to blackmail the Sun family into servitude. Sun Ce is the first to rebel against Orochi, under the guidance of , and much to the disapproval of his siblings, Quan and Shang Xiang, but he would eventually get them back on his side and save their father. He also has an important role in the other storylines, thus making him one of the main protagonists in the game along with Zhao Yun, Cao Pi, and Oda Nobunaga.

Family

* Father
** Sun Jian
* Mother
** Lady Wu
* Brothers
** Sun Quan
** Sun Kuang
** Sun Yi
** Sun Lang
* Sister
** Sun Shangxiang
* Wife
** Elder Qiao
* Children
** Posthumous son Sun Shao
** Elder daughter wed to Zhu Ji
** Second daughter wed to Gu Shao and later
* Brother in Law and sworn brother
** Zhou Yu

Sun Fu

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Sun Fu 孫府 Second son of Sun Qiang. Imprisoned after trying to surrender to Cao Cao.

Life

Sun Fu, styled Guoyi, was the second son of Sun Qiang, Sun Jian’s twin brother. He followed Sun Ce in his later campaigns against Yuan Shu and Liu Xun, earning great merits by raiding Ling Yang and Lu Jiang. When Liu Xun was defeated, Sun Fu was put in charge of rebuilding the city’s walls, which he accomplished very well. He earned the title of General Who Pacifies the South.

Before the Battle of Chi Bi, Sun Fu decided to surrender to Cao Cao. To this end, he sent a letter to Cao Cao proclaiming his intent to surrender, but this letter was intercepted. Sun Quan angrily stripped Sun Fu of all rank and imprisoned him, but spared him on account of filial duty. Sun Fu was released and died a few years after the battle, never again having a military command. His sons, however, all received rank.

Sun Jian

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Sun Jian was a military general and minor warlord during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era in ancient China. He allied himself with Yuan Shu in 190 when warlords from eastern China formed a coalition to oust Dong Zhuo, a tyrannical warlord who held the puppet in his power. Although he controlled neither many troops nor much land, Sun Jian's personal bravery and resourcefulness were feared by Dong Zhuo, who placed him among Yuan Shao, Yuan Shu and Liu Biao as the most influential men at that time. After the coalition disbanded in the next year, China fell into massive civil war. In 191, Sun Jian was killed in battle during an offensive campaign against Liu Biao.

Sun Jian was also the father of Sun Quan, one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms era who eventually established the Eastern Wu state and declared himself its first in 229, whereupon Sun Jian was given the posthumous title of Emperor Wulie .

Life

Early life and career

Born in the Fuchun Prefecture of the Wu Commandery , Sun Jian was said to be a descendant of the renowned military strategist Sun Tzu, author of ''The Art of War''. He was a civil officer in his prefecture during his youth. When he was sixteen, Sun Jian travelled with his father to Qiantang , where they came upon a band of pirates dividing up their spoils on land. Sūn Jiān jumped on shore with a sabre in hand and pointed in different directions as if commanding a detachment of soldiers to surround the pirates. Seeing this, the pirates were deceived and fled. Sun Jian pursued, and only after taking the head of every pirate did he return . His name henceforth spread.

In 184, the Yellow Turban Rebellion led by Zhang Jiao broke out across the country. Sun Jian joined the general Zhu Jun to quell the rebellion in area. The soldiers fought hard, forcing the rebels to retreat to Wancheng . Sun Jian placed himself in the forefront and climbed onto the city walls alone. The rest then swarmed in and defeated the rebels.

Around this time, Bian Zhang and Han Sui colluded with the Qiang tribes and rebelled in . After Dong Zhuo failed to put down the rebellion, the central government sent in his place the Minister of Works Zhang Wen , who invited Sun Jian along as an advisor. When Zhang Wen summoned Dong Zhuo to the encampment at Chang'an, Dong Zhuo procrastinated and took a long time to arrive. When he did, he showed little respect for Zhang Wen. Sun Jian then advised Zhang Wen to execute Dong Zhuo, but Zhang Wen declined as Dong Zhuo held high reputation in the west.

Hearing that a mass army had arrived, the rebels promptly surrendered. When Zhang Wen and the rest returned to the capital Luoyang, however, the court held that the army did not engage the enemy and thus no honor was accorded. Meanwhile, another local-scale rebellion broke out near Changsha and the rebels besieged the city. Sun Jian was then made governor of Changsha. Within a month upon taking up office, Sun Jian had quelled the rebellion. Meanwhile, rebellions also broke out in the neighboring of Lingling and . Both were put down by Sun Jian, who was then enfeoffed as Marquis of Wucheng .

Coalition against Dong Zhuo

In 189, died, leaving his young son in the care of regents Empress Dowager He and General-in-Chief He Jin. He Jin then summoned Dong Zhuo to lead troops into the capital to assist in a plot to eliminate the powerful eunuch faction. Before Dong Zhuo arrived, however, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuchs and Luoyang fell into chaos following a clash between supporters of both sides. Dong Zhuo then seized military control of the capital and deposed the young emperor for the puppet . However, his tyrannical ways incurred the wrath of many and in the following year, warlords from eastern China formed a coalition against him.

Sun Jian also raised an army with ten-thousands of troops and joined Yuan Shu, one of the leaders of the coalition at Luyang . Yuan Shu made Sun Jian the General Who Quells Rebels and governor of Yuzhou. Sun Jian then began training and preparing his troops at Luyang. A force sent by Dong Zhuo was so impressed with the strict discipline of Sun Jian's troops that they gave up the plan to attack Luyang. When Sun Jian moved out to Liangdong , he was outnumbered by Dong Zhuo's forces. With several dozen horsemen, Sun Jian broke out of the encirclement. He took off the red felt scarf he had always been wearing and handed it to his trusted aide Zu Mao , whom Dong Zhuo's soldiers then chased after while Sun Jian escaped. Unable to shake off his pursuers, Zu Mao then dismounted, hanged the scarf onto a half-burnt pillar, and hid himself in the tall grasses nearby. The enemies surrounded the pillar and approached cautiously till they realized they had been fooled, whereupon they retreated.

After regrouping his troops, Sun Jian pressed forward against the capital and engaged in battle against Dong Zhuo's forces at Yangren . He scored a brilliant victory and killed the enemy commander-in-chief Hua Xiong in battle. At this time, someone told Yuan Shu that if Sun Jian defeated Dong Zhuo and took over the capital, he would not be controllable anymore. The doubtful Yuan Shu then ceased the food supply to Sun Jian. Sun Jian rode the hundred odd ''li'' from Yangren to Luyang in the night to see Yuan Shu, whereupon he said to the latter, "I put myself to danger in battle, first to remove the rebel for the country and second to avenge the deaths of your family . I have no personal grudge against Dong Zhuo. Yet you could believe slanderous talks and suspect me!" The words put Yuan Shu to shame and he immediately ordered the food supply to be delivered.

Fearing Sun Jian, Dong Zhuo then sent his general Li Jue as an emissary to seek peace and propose a marriage to cement the alliance. However, Sun Jian rejected the proposals with harsh words and carried on his campaign towards Luoyang. In late 190, his force was merely ninety ''li'' away from the capital when Dong Zhuo retreated west to Chang'an after burning Luoyang to the ground. Entering Luoyang, Sun Jian ordered his men to reseal the tombs of former emperors that were excavated by Dong Zhuo, after which he returned to Luyang. It was said in the ''Book of Wu'' by Wei Zhao that Sun Jian found one of the emperor's jade seals in a well south of Luoyang and kept it. Later, when Yuan Shu declared himself emperor, he held Sun Jian's wife Lady Wu hostage in exchange for the seal.

Later life

In 191, Yuan Shu sent Sun Jian to attack Liu Biao in Jing Province . The defense force led by Liu Biao's subject Huang Zu was defeated by Sun Jian, who pursued the enemy across the to Xiangyang. During a solo ride on the Xian Hill , Sun Jian was ambushed by Huang Zu's troops, who shot him to death with arrows. The ''Record of Heroes'' by Wang Can, however, claims that Sun Jian died in 193 and that he was crushed to death by boulders instead of killed by arrows while pursuing the enemy commander Lü Gong. His nephew Sun Ben collected his troops and returned to Yuan Shu, who then made Sun Ben the Inspector of Yu Province.

Sun Jian was buried in Qu'e . He was survived by five sons: Sun Ce, Sun Quan, Sun Yi, Sun Kuang and Sun Lang and one daughter, commonly named Sun Shangxiang though her real name was not recorded in official history. His legacy was first inherited by the first-born Sun Ce, who died early at twenty-four. Sun Ce was then succeeded by his younger brother Sun Quan, who eventually established Eastern Wu as a sovereign state in 222 and declared himself its first emperor in 229. Sun Jian was then given the posthumous title of Emperor Wulie .

In ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

In the 14-century history novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', some events of Sun Jian were romanticised by Luo Guanzhong.

Sun Jian first appears the novel in Chapter 5, in which he joined the coalition against Dong Zhuo. In the battle against Hua Xiong, the commander of the enemy army, Sun Jian took off his own red scarf and handed it to Zu Mao when Sun Jian's army was raided. Having distracted Hua Xiong and let Sun Jian escape, Zu Mao was chased after by Hua Xiong, so he hid himself in woods after hanging the scarf on a half-burnt pillar. When Hua Xiong found himself to be fooled, he killed Zu Mao who dashed out of his hideout to challenge him. Hua Xiong then launched an attack on Sun's army, which lasted for a whole night. Sun Jian could not resist Hua Xiong, so he called for assistance from the coalition. Hua Xiong was unrivalled until he met the unfamed Guan Yu.

After Dong Zhuo retreated to Chang'an, Sun Jian was the first to enter Luoyang and ordered to put off the fires set by Dong Zhuo. Seeing the destruction of the imperial capital and Han dynasty, Sun Jian sighed and shed a tear. However, when his men found a jade seal, which was proven to be the imperial seal, Sun Jian grew ambitious and requested to retreat to his base. The news was leaked, to Sun Jian's miscalculation. When Yuan Shao, the leader of the coalition, interrogated Sun Jian, the latter swore by saying, "Should I have hid the treasure, I shall die miserably under arrows!" Under the protection by his guards, Sun Jian left Luoyang immediately.

On the way to his base, Sun Jian passed through Jing Province, where the governor, Liu Biao, was asked by Yuan Shao to attack Sun Jian. Sun Jian badly lost the battle and barely escaped. When he later launched a revenge attack upon Jing Provence, in accordance with the order of his senior, Yuan Shu, he was lured under a cliff where he was shot dead by arrows from the above. Sun's camp reclaimed Sun Jian's corpse using a captive, Huang Zu, who was Liu Biao's brother-in-law. When Dong Zhuo heard of Sun's death in Chang'an, he said, "One of my greatest enemies is removed!" and consequently usurped more power in the imperial court.

Modern references

Sun Jian is a playable character in the Koei video game series ''Dynasty Warriors''. He is depicted as a brave, intelligent and persistent warrior, albeit somewhat reckless and hot-headed. Sun often refers to himself as the "Tiger of Jiang Dong," as he is known to his army and his enemies. He fights with a fairly direct and straightforward sword-style suited to attacks against lone or minimal targets. He cares deeply for and respects his sons and daughter, with Sun Ce fighting alongside his father in some instances. Sun almost always wears armoured suits and helms during combat which are lavishly decorated in gold and red. Later designs have featured his trademark tiger stripes.

In ''Dynasty Warriors 6'' he does not wear a helmet revealing his white hair. He attacks with power, accuracy and skill. He wields a called the Elder Sword.

Sun Jian also appears in all the 11 games of Romance Of Three Kingdoms strategy games made by Koei .He is one of the strongest characters in the game and in some versions he has the highest LED points .His appearance is based somehow on both the novel and history .

Family

* Wife
** Lady Wu
* Sons
** Sun Ce （孫策）
** Sun Quan （孫權）
** Sun Kuang （孫匡）
** Sun Yi （孫翊）
** Sun Lang （孫朗）
* Daughter
** （孫夫人, whose real name is unknown in history and commonly known as Sun Shangxiang孫尚香）

Wang Mang

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Wang Mang and to create Wang Mang a marquess. Several well-regarded officials concurred in this request, and Emperor Cheng was impressed with Wang Mang's reputation. He therefore created Wang Mang the Marquess of Xindu and promoted him to minister without portfolio . It was described by historians that the greater the posts that Wang was promoted to, the more humble he grew. He did not accumulate wealth, but used the money to support scholars and to give gifts to colleagues, so he gained more and more praise.

Another thing that Wang Mang made himself known for was that he had only a wife, , and no concubines. However, as later events would show, Wang was not completely faithful to his wife, even at this time.

Emperor Cheng appointed his uncles, one after another, to be commander of the armed forces , and speculation grew on who would succeed Wang Mang's youngest surviving uncle, Wang Gen . Wang Mang was considered one of the possibilities, while another was his cousin Chunyu Zhang , who had a much closer personal relationship to Emperor Cheng than Wang Mang did. Chunyu also had friendly relations with both Emperor Cheng's wife Empress Zhao Feiyan and his deposed former wife .

To overcome Chunyu's presumptive hold on succeeding Wang Gen, Wang Mang took action. He collected evidence that Chunyu, a frivolous man in his words and deeds, had secretly received bribes from the deposed Empress Xu and had promised to help her become "left empress", and that he had promised his associates great posts once he would succeed Wang Gen. In 8 BC, He informed Wang Gen and Empress Dowager Wang of the evidence, and both Wang Gen and Empress Dowager Wang were greatly displeased. They exiled Chunyu back to his march. Chunyu, before he left the capital, gave his horses and luxurious carriages to his cousin Wang Rong -- the son of his uncle Wang Li , with whom he had a running feud. Wang Li, happy with Chunyu's gift, submitted a petition requesting that Chunyu be allowed to remain at the capital -- which drew Emperor Cheng's suspicion, because he knew of the feud between Wang Li and Chunyu. He ordered Wang Rong be arrested, and Wang Li, in his panic, ordered his son to commit suicide -- which in turn caused Emperor Cheng to become even more suspicious. He therefore had Chunyu arrested and interrogated. Chunyu admitted to deceiving Empress Xu and receiving bribes from her, and he was executed.

Also in 8 BC, Wang Gen, by then seriously ill, submitted his resignation and requested that Wang Mang succeed him. In winter 8 BC, Emperor Cheng made Wang Mang the commander of the armed forces , at the age of 37.

First tenure as the commander of the armed forces

After Wang Mang was promoted to this position -- effectively the highest in the imperial government -- he became even better known for his self-discipline and promotion of capable individuals than before. As a result, the people's perception of the Wang clan as arrogant, wasteful, and petty, began to be reversed.

In 7 BC, Wang's cousin Emperor Cheng died suddenly, apparently from a stroke . Emperor Cheng's nephew became emperor . For the time being, Wang remained in his post and continued to be powerful, as his aunt became grand empress dowager and was influential.

However, that would soon change. Emperor Ai's grandmother, was a domineering woman who ruled her grandson. She greatly wanted the title of empress dowager as well. Initially, Grand Empress Dowager Wang decreed that Princess Dowager Fu and Emperor Ai's mother Consort Ding see him periodically, every 10 days. However, Princess Dowager Fu quickly began to visit her grandson every day, and she insisted that two things be done: that she receive an empress dowager title, and that her relatives be granted titles, like the Wangs. Grand Empress Dowager Wang, sympathetic of the bind that Emepror Ai was in, first granted Prince Kang the unusual title of "Emperor Gong of Dingtao" and then, under the rationale of that title, granted Princess Dowager Fu the title "Empress Dowager Gong of Dingtao" and Consort Ding the title "Empress Gong of Dingtao" . Several members of the Fu and Ding clans were created marquesses. Grand Empress Dowager Wang also ordered Wang Mang to resign and transfer power to the Fu and Ding relatives. Emperor Ai declined and begged Wang Mang to stay in his administration.

Several months later, however, Wang Mang came into direct confrontation with now-Empress Dowager Fu. At a major imperial banquet, the official in charge of seating placed Empress Dowager Fu's seat next to Grand Empress Dowager Wang's. When Wang Mang saw this, he rebuked the official and ordered that Empress Dowager Fu's seat be moved to the side, which drew great ire from Empress Dowager Fu, who then refused to attend the banquet. To sooth her anger, Wang Mang resigned, and Emperor Ai approved his resignation. After this event, the Wangs gradually and inexorably began to lose their power.

Retirement during Emperor Ai's reign

After Wang Mang's resignation, he was initially requested by Emperor Ai to remain at the capital Chang'an and periodically meet him to give advice. However, in 5 BC, after Empress Dowager Fu was more successful in her quest for titles -- Emperor Ai removed the qualification "of Dingtao" from his father's posthumous title , and then gave his grandmother a variation of the grand empress dowager title and his mother a variation of the empress dowager title -- the prime minister Zhu Bo and vice prime minister Zhao Xuan , at her behest, submitted a petition to have Wang demoted to commoner status for having opposed Grand Empress Fu previously. Emperor Ai did not do so, but sent Wang back to his march Xindu .

While in Xindu, Wang was careful not to associate with many people . In 5 BC, when his son Wang Huo killed a household servant, Wang Mang ordered him to commit suicide. By 2 BC, there had been several hundred petitions by commoners and officials to request Wang Mang's return to the capital. Emperor Ai, who also respected Wang Mang, summoned him and his cousin Wang Ren , the son of Wang Gen, back to the capital to assist Grand Empress Dowager Wang. However, Wang Mang would have no official posts and would exert little influence on politics for the time being.

Regency and buildup of personality cult

Emperor Ai died suddenly in 1 BC, without heir. In decisive action, Grand Empress Dowager Wang seized power back from Emperor Ai's male favorite and likely lover Dong Xian and summoned Wang Mang back to the imperial government. She put him in charge of the armed forces and the government. They summoned Prince Jizi of Zhongshan to the capital to succeed Emperor Ai, and he ascended the throne as . Wang Mang became his regent.

Also in 1 BC, Wang, now in power, took drastic action to attack actual or perceived political enemies:

* The relations of Emperor Ai, the Fus and the Dings, were demoted and exiled back to their ancestral lands.
* Empress Dowager Zhao Feiyan, the wife of Emperor Cheng , and Empress Fu, the wife of Emperor Ai were demoted to commoner status and ordered to guard their husbands' tombs. They committed suicide in response.
* Grand Empress Dowager Fu and Empress Dowager Ding were posthumously demoted -- to the titles of "the mother of Prince Gong of Dingtao" and "Consort Ding" respectively.
* Dong Xian was disinterred and reburied within a prison, and his clan was exiled.
* He Wu , the former prime examiner, and his friend Gongsun Lu , who had opposed Wang Mang's regency, were relieved of their posts.
* Wujiang Long , the governor of the Nan Commandery , who had rejected Wang Mang's advances to serve as a political ally, was falsely accused of having falsely accused the innocent of witchcraft in 6 BC, and he, along with the ''real'' coconspirators against Princess Dowager Feng, were exiled.

Wang, having thus consolidated his power, began to further build up his personality cult, encouraging others to submit false prophecies in which he was mentioned as the second coming of Ji Dan, the Duke of Zhou and the regent for King Cheng of Zhou, or other great mythical personalities. He also began a regime of modifying the governmental structure to recall the governments of Zhou Dynasty and the even more ancient Shang Dynasty. This included numerous changes to officials' titles and even to geographical locations. To prevent Emperor Ping's maternal uncles of the Wei clan from becoming powerful, he ordered that they, along with Emperor Ping's mother Consort Wei, not be allowed to visit him in the capital.

In 1 AD, after bribing the distant Yueshang Tribes to submit offerings of an albino chicken , Wang was successful in having his followers persuade Grand Empress Dowager Wang to create him the Duke of Anhan -- even though the Han nobility system did not include dukes and no duke had ever been created in Han history up to that point -- to let his title parallel that of the Duke of Zhou. Believing her nephew to be truly faithful, Grand Empress Dowager Wang further transferred more of her authority to him.

In 2, Wang Mang issued a list of regulations to the ally-vassal Xiongnu, which the Xiongnu ''chanyu'' Nangzhiyasi obeyed, but Wang Mang's tone of treating Xiongnu as a subordinate state rather than an ally offended Nangzhiyasi, which would foreshadow eventual breakdown of relationship with Xiongnu.

Also in 2, Wang Mang decided to have his married to Emperor Ping to further affirm his position. Initially, he started a selection process of eligible noble young ladies . However, then, in an act of false modesty intended to create the opposite result, he petitioned Grand Empress Dowager Wang that his daughter not be considered -- and then started a petition drive by the people to have his daughter be selected as empress. The petitioners stormed the outside of the palace, and Grand Empress Dowager Wang, overwhelmed by the display of affection for Wang Mang, ordered that Wang Mang's daughter be made empress. In 4, Emperor Ping officially married her and created her empress.

Wang Mang's son Wang Yu disagreed with his father's dictatorial regime and program to build up his personality cult, afraid that in the future the Wangs would receive a backlash when Emperor Ping was grown. He therefore formed friendships with Emperor Ping's Wei uncles, and told Consort Wei to offer assurances to Wang Mang that she would not act as Emperor Ai's mother and grandmother did, trying to become an empress dowager. Wang Mang still refused to let her visit the capital.

In 3, Wang Yu formed a conspiracy with his teacher Wu Zhang , his brother-in-law Lü Kuan , and the Weis, to try to see what they could do to break Wang Mang's dictatorial hold. They decided that they would create what appear to be supernatural incidents to make Wang Mang concerned, and then have Wu try to persuade Wang Mang to transfer power to the Weis. Wang Yu told Lü to toss a bottle of blood onto Wang Mang's mansion door to create that effect -- but Lü was discovered by Wang Mang's guards. Wang Mang then arrested Wang Yu, who then committed suicide, and his wife Lü Yan was executed. Wang Mang then executed the entire Wei clan, except for Consort Wei. Wu was cut in half and then drawn and quartered.

Wang Mang then took this opportunity to further wipe out potential enemies -- by torturing Wang Yu and Lü's coconspirators and then arrest anyone that they mentioned, and then have them either executed or forced them to commit suicide. The victims of this purge included Emperor Yuan's sister Princess Jingwu , Wang Mang's own uncle Wang Li, and his own cousin Wang Ren. He told Grand Empress Dowager Wang, however, falsely, that they had died of illnesses. Many other officials who were not willing to follow Wang Mang were also victimized in this purge. After this, Wang Mang's hold on power became absolute. In 5, Wang Mang revived an ancient ceremony intended for those who have made great contributions to the state, and had himself given the nine bestowments .

Circa 5, Emperor Ping, having grown older, appeared to have grown out of a heart condition that he suffered as a child, and it became fairly plain that he resented Wang for slaughtering his uncles and not allowing his mother to visit him in Chang'an. Wang therefore resolved to murder the emperor. In winter 5, Wang submitted pepper wine to the 13-year-old emperor, but had the wine spiked with poison. As the emperor was suffering the effects of the poison, Wang wrote a secret petition to the gods, in which he offered to substitute his life for Emperor Ping's, and then have the petition locked away. After a few days of suffering, Emperor Ping died.

As acting emperor

Because the young Emperor Ping had not had any children by his wife Empress Wang or any of his concubines, there was no heir. Further, by that point, Emperor Ping's grandfather, Emperor Yuan had no surviving male issue. The progeny of Emperor Ping's great-grandfather were therefore examined as possible successors.

There were 53 great-grandsons of Emperor Xuan then still living by this stage, but they were all adults, and Wang Mang disliked that fact -- he wanted a child whom he could control. Therefore, he declared that it was inappropriate for members of the same generation to succeed each other . He then examined the 23 great-great-grandsons of Emperor Xuan -- all of whom were infants or toddlers.

While the examination process was proceeding, the mayor of South Chang'an submitted a rock with a mysterious red writing on it -- "Wang Mang, the Duke of Anhan, should be emperor." Wang had his political allies force Grand Empress Dowager Wang to issue an edict granting him the title of "Acting Emperor" , with the commission to rule as emperor until a great-great-grandson of Emperor Xuan could be selected and raised.

In the spring of 6, Acting Emperor Wang selected the child Ying -- then just one year old -- as the designated successor to Emperor Ping, claiming that soothsayers told him that Ying was the candidate most favored by the gods. He gave Ying the epithet ''Ruzi'' -- the same epithet that King Cheng of Zhou had when he was in his minority and under the regency of the Duke of Zhou -- to claim that he was as faithful as the Duke of Zhou. However, Emperor Ruzi did not ascend the throne, but was given the title of crown prince. Empress Wang was given the title empress dowager.

As acting emperor, Wang reinstituted the Zhou system of five grades of nobility -- duke , marquess , earl , viscount , and baron .

Several members of the imperial Liu clan were naturally suspicious of Acting Emperor Wang's intentions. They started or assisted in several failed rebellions against Wang:

* In 6, Liu Chong , the Marquess of Anzhong, made an attack against Wancheng . His attack failed, but historians did not specify what happened to him, other than that as punishment, Wang had his house filled with filthy water.
* In 7, Zhai Yi , the governor of the Commandery of Dong and Liu Xin , the Marquess of Yanxiang started the largest of these rebellions -- and they were joined by agrarian rebellion leaders Zhao Peng and Huo Hong from the area immediately west of the capital Chang'an. They declared Liu Xin emperor. Wang responded by sending messengers all around the nation to pledge that he will in fact return the throne to Emperor Ruzi once he was grown. Wang's armies defeated Zhai and Liu's armies in winter 7, and Zhai was captured and executed by drawing and quartering. Liu fled and was never captured. Zhao and Huo were also eventually defeated and executed.
* In 9 , Liu Kuai , the Marquess of Xuxiang, attacked the Dukedom of Fuchong, of his brother Liu Ying , the former Prince of Jiaodong. He was defeated and died while fleeing from the battle.
* In 13, under Emperor Wang Mang's rule, the Heavenly Stems were incorporated to number the years and replace the previous system which used only the Earthly Branches.

After Zhai and Liu Xin was defeated, Wang became even more convinced that the empire was entirely under his control, and decided to finally seize the throne and start a new dynasty. In winter 8, after receiving a false prophecy written by the hoodlum Ai Zhang which pretended to be a divine decree from stating that the throne should be given to Wang, and that Grand Empress Dowager Wang should follow this divine will, Wang issued a decree accepting the position of emperor, establishing the Xin Dynasty.

Early reign: mistakes

Early in his reign, now-Emperor Wang Mang was self-confident and believed that he now had the power to implement his ideals of restoring the legendary golden age of the early Zhou Dynasty. To those ends, he modified the governmental structure in many ways to conform with Zhou standards. He also continued the regime of modifying geographical names to fit with ancient names -- so much so that even imperial edicts discussing the locations by their new names were forced to include notes on the old names so that the recipients of the edicts could tell what locations he was referring to. As part of this regime, the capital Chang'an's name was changed as well, involving the change of a character -- 長安 to 常安 .

In 9, Wang Mang created his wife, Lady Wang, empress. By this point, only two of her four sons were still alive. The older, Wang An was described as lacking in talent, so Wang created the younger, Wang Lin , crown prince, and created Wang An the Lord of Xinjia . He selected many Confucian scholars to serve as advisors for Crown Prince Lin.

Wang, grateful to his aunt Grand Empress Dowager Wang , continued to honor her as empress dowager, but also gave her an additional title of ''Wangmu'' , the same title carried by the mother of King Wen of Zhou, implying that she was also his mother and had helped establish a new dynasty. She died in 13.

Economic policies

In 9, Wang Mang instituted a revolutionary land redistribution system, ordering that all land in the empire become legally the property of the empire, to be known as ''wangtian'' , in a system similar to the Zhou well-field system. All further land transactions were banned, although property owners were allowed to continue to possess the property. However, if a family had less than eight members but had one "well" or larger property , it was required to distribute the excess to fellow clan members, neighbors, or other members of the same village. Criticism of the ''wangtian'' system was punishable by exile. Wang also banned slave trading . Eventually, with resistance to both of these policies, Wang was forced to repeal both of them in 12.

In 10, Wang set up a state economic adjustment agency, seeking to control fluctuations in the prices of food and textile by purchasing excess goods and then selling them when price went up. The same agency also became responsible for loaning money to entrepreneurs, at the rate of three percent per month. Six offices were set up: in Chang'an, Luoyang, Handan, Linzi , Wancheng , and Chengdu.

In the same year, Wang Mang instituted a "sloth tax"; if landowners left land uncultivated, city dwellers left their houses without trees, or citizens refused to work, there would be penalties to be paid, with textile. For those unable to pay those penalties, they would be required to labor for the state.

In addition, in 10, Wang also instituted an unprecedented tax -- the income tax -- at the rate of 10 percent of profits, for professionals and skilled labor. He also instituted a state monopoly on liquor and weapons.

Another economic change instituted by Wang -- a fairly disastrous one -- was to issue 28 types of coins, made of gold, silver, tortoise shells, sea shells, and copper. Because there were so many kinds of coins , people became unable to recognize the kinds of coins as genuine or as counterfeit, and the money-based economy came to a halt. Eventually, Wang was forced to abolish all but two kinds of coins -- the small coin that had the same value of a Han coin, and the large coin that had the value of 50 small coins. However, the people, despite fairly severe penalties, lost faith in the Xin coins, and continued to use Han coins in an underground trade economy.

In 17, in an attempt to refill the depleted imperial coffers, Wang instituted six monopolies -- of liquor, salt, iron, coinage, forestry, and fishing. However, because of rampant corruption, the imperial treasury received only limited benefit, while the people were greatly burdened.

Deterioration of the relationship with Xiongnu and other vassals

Problems with Xiongnu

The first sign of irritation came sometime before 10; the Xin director of Wuhuan affairs had informed the Wuhuan tribes not to pay further tribute to Xiongnu. In response, Xiongnu made a punitive military action against Wuhuan, capturing about 1,000 women and children to serve as hostages. Later, at Wang Mang's orders, Xiongnu was forced to return the Wuhuan hostages.

In 10, Wang sent his ambassadors to Xiongnu to inform Chanyu Zhi that he had become emperor and that Xin had replaced Han, and requested that the great seal of the chanyu, which Han had issued, be exchanged for a new seal issued by Xin. The old seal read, "the Great Seal of the Chanyu of Xiongnu" , while the new seal read, "the Seal of the Chanyu of Xiongnu, of Xin" , implying that Xiongnu, which Han had treated with some ambiguity about whether it was a vassal, was clearly a vassal of Xin. Without examining the new seal, Chanyu Zhi agreed to the exchange. The ambassadors, apprehensive that the Chanyu, once he realized what had happened, would demand the old seal back, destroyed the old seal. Indeed, the next day, the chanyu realized that the seal text had changed, and requested that the old seal be returned, but upon being informed that the old seal had been destroyed , acquiesced. Chanyu Zhi, however, began to prepare for confrontation with Xin. He built defensive bulwarks some distance from the Xin outpost of Shuofang . He also began to accept Xiyu kingdoms' pledges of allegiance, which were banned previously by Wang.

Wang, irritated, declared war against Xiongnu. The strategy that he set out were to divide the Xin forces into 12 armies to divide and conquer Xiongnu. Under this scenario, Chanyu Zhi would be attacked and forced to retreat to the Dingling tribes , and Xiongnu would be divided into 15 small kingdoms to be ruled by 15 descendants of Chanyu Huhanye, who had first established friendly relations with Han. Under this plan, 300,000 men would be gathered -- Wang did not follow his generals' recommendations to start the campaign as soon as a critical mass of men were gathered, but wanted to attack with overwhelming force. This caused the border regions to be strained with supplying the men who arrived first for years, while fruitlessly waiting for the full complement of 300,000 to be gathered.

In the first stage of this plan, one of the local commanders kidnapped one of Chanyu Zhi's brothers, Xian , the Prince of Zuoliwu , and his sons Deng and Zhu , by trickering. Xian and Zhu were made chanyus -- to be two of the 15. Chanyu Zhi became enraged and started massive attacks against Xin border regions, causing the border regions much distress and loss in economic and human terms. Eventually, Xian escaped back to Xiongnu, but his sons were kept as hostages. After Zhu died, Deng succeeded him. However, in 12, after hearing reports that Xian's other son Jiao had been a successful Xiongnu strategist in military actions, Wang, in anger, executed Deng and his attendants.

Later, in 13, Chanyu Zhi died. The powerful official Xubu Dang and his wife Yun, the Princess Yimuo , who advocated peaceful relations with Xin and who were also friendly with Xian, supported Xian as the new chanyu, but even though Xian was unaware that Wang Mang had executed his son Deng, friendly relationship did not return. There was a temporary détente in 14, when Xian returned Xin defectors Chen Liang and Zhong Dai , who, as junior army officers in Xiyu, had killed their superiors and surrendered to Xiongnu so that Wang could execute them. In response, Wang recalled the forces to the northern regions which were intended to attack Xiongnu . However, after Chanyu Xian found out late in 14 that Deng had been executed, he resumed raids against the border regions but maintained a façade of peace.

Problems with southwestern tribes

Similarly, when Wang Mang first became emperor, his ambassadors visited the southwestern tribes , whose chieftains Han had largely granted the titles of princes. Wang's new seals demoted them to the titles of marquesses. One of the more powerful ones, Han , the Prince of Juting , became so angry that he cut off relations with Xin. Wang instructed the local commandery governor Zhou Xin to use trickery to kill Han. In response, Han's brother Cheng started a rebellion, killing Zhou, and starting a campaign of harassment against Xin borders. By 16, the Commandery of Yizhou had become corrupt, and yet Juting remained powerful. In 16, Wang commissioned two generals, Lian Dan and Shi Xiong , who were initially successful against Juting, but soon became caught in problems with food supply and plagues. However, Wang continued to refuse to reinstitute the Han system of using awards to buy the submission of southwestern tribes.

Problems with Korean tribes

When Wang started his campaign against Xiongnu, he requisitioned the forces of Korean tribes within Xin borders. The Korean tribes refused, and marched out of Xin borders, and the army that Wang sent against them were defeated by them. The general Wang sent, Yan You , used humble words to trick their leader, Zou , who carried the title the Marquess of Gaojuli (高句驪, Hangul: 고구려 , into a meeting with him, and then killing Zou by surprise. Wang then changed Gaojuli to the derogatory term "Xiajuli" , which further enraged the Koreans, causing them to attack the Xin northeastern regions with greater ferocity.

Problems with Xiyu kingdoms

The troubles with Xiyu kingdoms also started in 10. In that year, Xuzhili , the King of Rear Cheshi became concerned of the great cost of hosting Xin ambassadors, and he became so distressed that he considered abandoning his kingdom and fleeing to Xiongnu. Xin's Xiyu commissioner Dan Qin summoned Xuzhili and executed him. Xuzhili's brother Hulanzhi fled to Xiongnu and attacked Dan, inflicting severe casualties, before withdrawing.

In 13, the dual kingdom Wusun sent ambassadors to Chang'an to offer tributes. Because Wang Mang knew that the people of Wusun actually had greater affinity for the lesser king, he placed the ambassador of the lesser king in a higher position than the ambassador of the greater king, which greatly insulted the greater king.

Also in 13, perhaps related to this, the Xiyu kingdoms joined forces and attacked the Xiyu commissioner Dan, and successfully killed him. The Xiyu kingdoms, by that point, no longer pledged allegiance to Xin. In 16, Wang made another attempt to intimidate the Xiyu kingdoms back into submission, but the armies were divided and cut off from each other. One army was entirely wiped out. The other was forced to withdraw to Qiuzi with its way back to Xin proper cut off, and the army settled there and was unable to return for the rest of Xin Dynasty's duration.

Paralysis and corruption of the government

In addition to these wars, a major problem plaguing Wang Mang's administration was that he was so committed in determining the ancient governmental structure, believing that once things were restored to Zhou Dynasty standards, the government would be efficient. He and his officials spent inordinate amounts of time carrying out research of legends, leaving important affairs of the state undecided. A large number of counties lacked magistrates for years. The local officials, without supervision, became highly corrupt and oppressive of the populace.

Because of the way Wang came to power, he also became suspicious of allowing his subordinates to have too much power. Therefore, he made all important decisions by himself and did not delegate. This left him highly fatigued and many decisions unmade. Further, he entrusted eunuchs to screen the reports from local governments for him, but those eunuchs would decide to relay or not relay those reports based on their own personal likes and dislikes, and many important petitions went unanswered.

An even more serious problem was that the officials lacked salaries. Han had a well-defined system of official salaries, but when Wang became emperor, he ordered that the salary system be overhauled and recalibrated; however because a new system could not be created for years, the officials went without salary in the meantime. In response, they became corrupt in demanding bribes from the people, causing the people much distress. In 16, Wang finally issued the new salary system, which were to depend on how prosperous the state was to determine what the salaries were. However, because whether the state was in a prosperous year was a highly subjective matter, the officials continued to go without salary for the rest of the Xin Dynasty's existence.

Middle reign: agrarian rebellions

For a while, despite the failures of Wang's policies, the people were generally obedient. About 17, as the burdens from the wars and the corruption continued to increase, however, several agrarian rebellions started and took hold, partly also because of a major famine in Jing Prefecture . The more significant ones include:

* Guatian Yi , who occupied territory in modern Suzhou, Jiangsu.
* Mother Lü, whose son was a minor civil servant who was wrongly killed by the county magistrate. She gathered a group of desperate young men and killed the county magistrate, and then went out to the sea to become pirates, but later returned to land when her forces became larger.
* Zhang Ba , who occupied territory in modern Jingzhou, Hubei.
* Yang Mu , who occupied territory in modern Xiaogan, Hubei.
* Diao Zidu , who roved through modern western Shandong and northern Jiangsu.
* The very important Lülin Mountain rebels, who were led by Wang Kuang and Wang Feng . Because both Wang Kuang and Wang Feng were from Xinshi , these rebels were also known as Xinshi rebels.
* The also very important Chimei rebels, who were led by Fan Chong , who roved through large swaths of territory in modern southern Shandong and northern Jiangsu.

Wang sent messengers issuing pardons in hope of causing these rebels to disband. Once the messengers returned to Chang'an, some honestly reported that the rebels had gathered because the harsh laws made it impossible for them to make a living and therefore they were forced to rebel. Some, in order to flatter Wang Mang, told him that these were simply evil resisters who needed to be killed, or that this was a temporary phenomenon. Wang listened to those who flattered him and generally relieved from their posts those who told the truth. Further, Wang made no further attempts to pacify the rebels, but instead decided to suppress them by force.

At this time, Wang made another strategic mistake involving Xiongnu. In 18, Chanyu Xian died, and his brother Yu became chanyu. He wanted to consider peace with Xin, and he sent one of his key officials and a nephew of his to serve as ambassadors to Chang'an. In response, Wang Mang sent Wang Zhaojun's brother Wang She to meet with Princess Yun and her husband Xuyu Dang. At the meeting, however, Xin forces surprised and kidnapped the princess and her husband and took them to Chang'an. Wang Mang created Xuyu chanyu and envisioned placing him on the Xiongnu throne by force. This ended any hope of peace with Xiongnu.

In 20, Wang Mang made a sudden change of his presumed heir -- of sorts. He suddenly deposed Crown Prince Lin, under the rationale that disaster would come from the fact that Crown Prince Lin was younger than his brother Lord An, and should not have been crown prince. He then created Lord An the Prince of Xinqian and Wang Lin the Prince of Tongyiyang.

In 21, Empress Wang died. After her death, Wang Mang discovered that one of Empress Wang's ladies in waiting, Yuan Bi , with whom he had an affair, had also had an affair with Crown Prince Lin, and that she had conspired with Crown Prince Lin to kill Wang Mang, in light of Wang Lin's demotion. Wang Mang ordered Wang Lin to commit suicide by poison, but Wang Lin refused, and killed himself by sword. Later that year, Wang An died as well. Wang Mang then announced that he had in fact two sons by female servants, whom he then created dukes.

Late reign: hopelessness

;Agrarian revolts
In 22, Wang Mang finally saw that the agrarian rebellions were posing a much greater threat to his rule than the Xiongnu. He commissioned two of his key officials, Wang Kuang and Lian Dan to attack agrarian rebellions, with the Chimei being their first target. Wang and Lian had some initial successes, but Wang insisted on having them keep fighting without resting, and the fatigued forces eventually collapsed.

In the same year, Lülin forces suffered a major plague, killing about half of the rebels. This caused them to divide. One branch headed west to the region of modern Jingzhou, Hubei, while the other headed north to the region of the modern Nanyang, Henan.

;Liu's revolt merge with Lülin agrarian revolt
Around this time, the most ambitious of the rebels would emerge. , a descendant of a distant branch of the Han imperial clan, who lived in his ancestral territory of Chongling , had long been disgusted by Wang Mang's usurpation of the Han throne, and had long aspired to start a rebellion. His brother , by contrast, was a careful and deliberate man, who was content to be a farmer. Around this time, there were prophecies being spread about that the Lius would return to power, and many men gathered about Liu Yan, requesting that he lead them. He agreed, and further joined forces with the branch of Lülin forces who had entered the proximity, and they began to capture territory instead of simply roving and raiding. In 23, under Liu Yan's leadership, the joint forces had a major victory over Zhen Fu , the governor of the Commandery of Nanyang, killing him. They then besieged the important city of Wancheng .

;A new imperial pretender
By this point, many other rebel leaders had become jealous of Liu Yan's capabilities, and while a good number of their men admired Liu Yan and wanted him to become the emperor of a newly declared Han Dynasty, they had other ideas. They found another local rebel leader, also of Han imperial descent, , who was considered a weak personality, and requested that he be made emperor. Liu Yan initially opposed this move and instead suggested that Liu Xuan carry the title "Prince of Han" first . The other rebel leaders refused, and in early 23, Liu Xuan was proclaimed emperor. Liu Yan became prime minister.

;The Battle of Kunyang
In the spring of 23, a major military confrontation sealed Wang Mang's fate. He sent his cousin Wang Yi and his prime minister Wang Xun with what he considered to be overwhelming force, some 430,000 men, intending to crush the newly reconstituted Han regime. The Han forces were at this point in two groups -- one led by Wang Feng, Wang Chang , and Liu Xiu, which, in response to the arrival of the Xin forces, withdrew to the small town of Kunyang and one led by Liu Yan, which was still besieging Wancheng. The rebels in Kunyang initially wanted to scatter, but Liu Xiu opposed it; rather, he advocated that they guard Kunyang securely, while he would gather all other available troops in surrounding areas and attack the Xin forces from the outside. After initially rejecting Liu Xiu's idea, the Kunyang rebels eventually agreed.

Liu Xiu carried out his action, and when from the outside. Wang Yi and Wang Xun, annoyed, led 10,000 men to attack Liu Xiu and ordered the rest of their troops not to move from their siege locations. Once they engaged in battle, however, after minor losses, the other units were hesitant to assist them, and Liu Xiu killed Wang Xun in battle. After that, the Han forces inside Kunyang burst out of the city and attacked the other Xin units, and the much larger Xin forces suffered a total collapse. The soldiers largely deserted and went home, unable to be gathered again. Wang Yi had to withdraw with only several thousand men back to Luoyang. This was a major blow to Xin, psychologically; from this point on, there would be no hope for it.

;Conquest of the capitals
Emperor Gengshi then commissioned two armies, one led by Wang Kuang, targeting Luoyang, and the other led by Shentu Jian and Li Song , targeting Chang'an directly. All the populace on the way gathered, welcomed, and joined the Han forces. Shentu and Li quickly reached the outskirts of Chang'an. In response, the young men within Chang'an also rose up and stormed Weiyang Palace, the main imperial palace. Wang died in the battle at the palace , as did his daughter Princess Huanghuang . After Wang died, the crowd fought over the right to have the credit for having killed Wang, and tens of soldiers died in the ensuing fight. Wang's body was cut into pieces, and his head was delivered to the provisional Han capital Wancheng, to be hung on the city wall. However, the angry people took it off the wall and kicked it around, and someone cut his tongue off. Eventually, the head was preserved and kept in a court vault, until it was destroyed in a fire in the .

Reasons for Wang Mang's failure

Wang's reforms have been said to be a foreshadowing of socialism. The reasons why he failed were complicated. The Qing Dynasty historian Zhao Yi made the following remarks, which, while perhaps overly derogating of Wang, were not inaccurate:

:''The first of Wang Mang's failures was to seize all private land under the ''wangtian'' system and prohibiting land transactions. If a person's land exceeded 0.6 square kilometers, then he must distribute them to neighbors or relatives. Those who dared to oppose it were exiled to the wild borderland. He also prohibited people from saving and using the Han coins that the people considered reliable, and he also exiled those who violated this policy. Therefore, farmers and tradesmen lost their livelihood. Further, those who were severely punished for trading land or trading Han coins were innumerable. He then created the six monopolies, ordering local governments to monopolize liquor, salt, and iron, and he created taxes on the goods coming out of mountains, forests, and lakes. These are all policies that angered the Chinese.''

:''Wang Mang thought he had already brought Xiongnu to the north, Koreans to the east, and Huangzhi tribes to the south to submission, but he had no accomplishments in the west, so he encouraged the Qiang tribes to offer their lands to establish the Commandery of Xihai, but after the Qiang tribes lost their lands, they rebelled. He also demoted the barbaric princes to marquesses. He sent ambassadors to issue a new seal to the Xiongnu chanyu, changing the text of the great seal. Chanyu wanted the old seal, but the ambassadors destroyed it. Chanyu became angry and therefore began to disturb the northern territories. The Prince of Juting also rebelled because he was demoted to marquess status. These are all policies that angered the foreigners.''

:''Because of Xiongnu raids, Wang Mang sent 12 generals and 180 officers to lead a force of 300,000 men. When those who violated the coinage policy and their neighbors were all arrested, Wang made these condemned people soldiers. Men were put into stock cars, while women and children were forced to walk with chains around their necks. Their numbers exceeded 100,000. After they arrived, husbands and wives were separated from each other and given over to other men and women. Local governments were required to transport food from the regions of the Yangtze River and the to the northern extremes. The troops that arrived first were required to wait for the entire army to be constituted before attacking. Therefore, the generals and the officers became lawless in the northern territories and became a major disaster. The Commanderies of Wuyuan and Dai suffered the most. The forces attacking Juting suffered losses of 50 to 60 percent. These are all policies that, because of Wang Mang's militarism, caused foreign states to be embroiled in enmity with China.''

:''Therefore, as a result, the empire boiled like water, and the people rose against him. , Chimei, and all claimed to have Liu ancestry to obtain support. Many know that Wang Mang's defeat was because the people missed Han Dynasty, but they do not know that the reason why the people missed the Han Dynasty was because of Wang Mang. When Wang Mang first became regent, he accomplished many great deeds to become the basis for his greater evil acts, but these were only acts of ordinary treacherous men. After he usurped the throne, he did not know how to comfort and guide the people, and felt that he could ceaselessly deceive everyone. Therefore, he caused both the Chinese and the foreigners to hate him.''

:''The entire empire was already collapsing, but Wang Mang did not care, but rather buried his head in what is old, believing that once he returned the government structure to the old days, the empire will be peaceful. He only sought to establish proper ceremony and music day and night, and he sought to create explanations for all of the by making tortured interpretations, without spending time on the important affairs of state. Before he could complete his ceremonies and music, he was already killed. This kind of behavior is even more childish than a three year old child. There is a common contemporary idiom, "foolishness is but a form of trickery." But for Wang Mang, his trickery was only a form of foolishness.''

Personal information

* Father
** Wang Man , the early-deceased brother of Empress Wang Zhengjun
* Mother
** Qu
* Wives
** , mother of Wang Yu, Wang Huo, Wang An, Wang Lin, and Princess Huanghuang
**
* Major concubines
** Zhenzhi , originally a female servant, family name unknown, mother of Wang Kuang
** Huaineng , originally a female servant, family name unknown, mother of Wang Xin and a daughter of Wang's
** Kaiming , originally a female servant, family name unknown, mother of Wang Jie
* Children
** Wang Yu
** Wang Huo
** Wang An , initially created the Lord of Xinjia , then the Prince of Xinqian
** Wang Lin , initially created the Crown Prince , then the Prince of Tongyiyang
** Wang Xing , the Duke of Gongxiu
** Wang Kuang , the Duke of Gongjian
** Princess Huanghuang , initlally created the Duchess Dowager of Ding'an
** Wang Jie , the Lady of Mudai
** A daughter by Huaineng , the Lady of Muxiu

Wei Qing

2008-09-08T20:40:00.004-07:00

Wèi Qīng , born in Linfen, Shanxi, was a great general during Han Dynasty of China, whose campaigns against Xiongnu earned him great acclaim. He was the younger half-brother of and the uncle of , as well as the 's late brother-in-law.

Family background and early career

Wei was born from humble means, as an illegitimate child from an adulterous relationship. His father Zheng Ji was a low level official for Pingyang County and was commissioned to serve at the estate of Cao Shou , the Marquess of Pingyang , and his wife . There, he met and had a relationship with a female servant named Wei, and their relationship produced a son, Wei Qing, who took his mother's family name because of the illegitimacy . As an illegitimate child, the young Wei Qing was detested by his stepmother, father and half-siblings, and was made to live the life of lowly servants. Unable to tolerate the maltreatment, Wei Qing eventually ran away back to his mother's side during his early teenage years, and served as a horsekeeper in the marquess's estate of Pingyang.

After Princess Pingyang offered the singer/dancer to as a concubine circa 139 BC, Wei Qing followed as an accompanying gift to serve as a palace horsekeeper. However, as his sister gained the Emperor's love, near disaster would strike for Wei. The powerful Grand Princess Liu Piao , the mother of , angry that Consort Wei had siphoned off the imperial favor that her daughter had previously enjoyed, kidnapped Wei Qing, and wanted to kill him privately as retaliation. However, Wei was rescued at the last moment by his friends, a group of fellow palace horseman led by Gongsun Ao . In response to the incident, and as a show of his own annoyance towards Empress Chen and Grand Princess Liu, Emperor Wu made Wei Qing the head official of the household at Jianzhang Palace , away from where the princess might be able to harm him, and awarded Wei Qing with great wealth.

Career as general

Great wealth would not be all that Wei would have. Emperor Wu saw qualities in him that he believed would make a great general -- brilliant horsemanship, archery, bravery, as well as excellent leadership qualities, including the ability to sympathize with his soldiers and obtain their loyalty. Emperor Wu would promote Wei Qing to be his closest consul/lieutenant for the next few years, until he had secured all the power of his throne.

In 129 BC, when Xiongnu attacked the Commandery of Shanggu , Emperor Wu dispatched Wei Qing , Gongsun Ao, Gongsun He and against Xiongnu, each leading 10,000 cavalries. Li Guang and Gongsun Ao suffered major losses at Xiongnu's hands, while Gongsun He failed to encounter and engage the enemy. Wei, however, distinguished himself by raiding Xiongnu's holy site Longcheng , killing over 700 Xiongnu soldiers guarding the place in the process. As a reward for the victory , Wei was promoted to a higher command and created an acting marquess .

In 128 BC, Wei would have a larger victory against Xiongnu, killing thousands of Xiongnu soldiers.

In 127 BC, Wei had a major victory against Xiongnu's Princes of Loufan and Baiyang after totally outmaneuvering and surrounding the Xiongnu forces, killing thousands of Xiongnu soldiers and capturing over a million Xiongnu cattles. The Han recapture of the territory forced the two Xiongnu clans to withdraw from the fertile Hetao region , and dealt devastating blow to the economy of these Xiongnu tribes. The City of Shuofang was built, and would later become a key stronghold from which offensive and defensive campaigns against Xiongnu would be launched. For his achievement, Wei was created the Marquess of Changping , and his subordinates Su Jian and Zhang Cigong were also created marquesses.

In 124 BC, Wei would be the vital part of the greatest Han victory over Xiongnu to date. When Xiongnu's Worthy Prince of the Right made harassing raids against Shuofang, Wei and his other generals surprised them by launching a crushing night assault on Xiongnu's main camp, surrounding them from the rear. Not only did they sent the Worthy Prince running for his life from his drunken sleep , they also took about 15,000 captives, including large numbers of Xiongnu princes and nobles, and great herds of cattles. At this compaign, his nephew Huo Qubing distinguished himself in battle and was given his own command. For this victory, Wei was made the Grand Commander of all armed forces , and his was enlarged. His three young sons Wei Kang , Wei Buyi , and Wei Deng were also made marquesses , as were seven generals under Wei's command.

In 123 BC, Wei would fight a relatively inconclusive battle. After initially killing or capturing thousands of Xiongnu soldiers, part of his vanguard forces, a 3,000-strong regiment commanded by Generals Su Jian and , was surprised and surrounded by the forces led by Xiongnu's Chanyu Yizhixie , and almost annihilated. Zhao defected, while Su escaped after losing all his men in the desperate fighting. Showing compassion on Su, Wei spared him even though some advocates advised that Su be executed on the spot after court martial to enforce Wei's commanding authority.

Despite his great honor and power, Wei remained humble in many ways. Because of the great favor Emperor Wu showed him, all of the other officials at court flattered him, except for Ji An , who treated him as an equal. Wei was impressed by Ji's integrity in face of pressure and respected Ji greatly, often requesting Ji's opinion on important matters. Throughout his career, he refused to hire scholars to praising him and create favorable public opinions, and tried to maintain a relative low-profile fashion of life. Despite his humble way of life, Wei's status in the Han army made him a distinguished figure in the country, attracting admiration, jealousy and hostility alike. Emperor Wu's uncle, the Prince of Huainan , who had been conspiring military coup for a long time, saw Wei as his prime political obstacle that must be removed.

The Battle of Mobei and Involvement in Li Guang's death

In 119 BC, Wei, as the Grand Commander of the armed forces, would be involved in a battle controversially leading to the death of another famous general, Li Guang. In this engagement, Emperor Wu broke the normal pattern of reaction against Xiongnu attacks by making a major excursion against Xiongnu's headquarters in the north of the Gobi Desert. This is known to history as the . Wei and Huo were in command of the two main armies. Under Wei's command were four other generals Li, Gongsun He, Zhao Yiji and Cao Xiang . Contrary to the arrangements promised to Li by Emperor Wu, where he would command the advance division, Emperor Wu secretly told Wei not to assign Li to important missions due to Li's history of "bad lucks". Wei, after the army had already departed, merged Li's forces with Zhao's and ordered them to take an eastern side route through a barren region. According to the historian , Wei had done this to give his old friend Gongsun Ao, who had recently been stripped of his title, a chance to win a major battle and be re-promoted. However, it should be noted that sending Generals of Front and Right on flanking routes was Wei's typical tactical arrangement. This was evidented by his deployment of Zhao Xin and Su Jian, who were Generals of Front and Right respectively during the less-than-successful 123 BC campaign.

Wei's army unexpectedly encountered on Chanyu Yizhixie's main forces, who was waiting in anticipation of ambushing the Han army. Despite being significantly outnumbered and fatigued after the long journey, Wei was able to counter Xiongnu's cavalry charge with archery defence created by heavy-armored chariots arranged in ring formations, which was reinforced with cavalry counteroffensives. Late into the battle, seizing the moment of a sandstorm , Wei broke the stalemate and launched bilateral flanking attacks with his cavalries. This decisive move shattered the Chanyu's line, nearly capturing him and completely overrunning his forces, killing over 10,000 Xiongnu soldiers in the process. The Han army pursued all the way to the modern Ulan Bator region, destroying the Xiongnu stronghold Zhao Xin Castle before returning in triumph with a total of about 30,000 enemy kills. Chanyu Yizhixie was forced to escape with very few men, lost communication with his tribe for days, and did not return until his clan presumed his death and installed a new Chanyu. This was a narrow but critically significant victory for the Han empire. Xiongnu was greatly weakened to the point that they would huddle up into the barren northern Gobi desert , and unable to raid south for the next few decades. did not occur until after the Han dynasty collapsed, some 400 years later during the .

Meanwhile, Li and Zhao got lost in the desert and failed to arrive in time for battle, despite meeting little Xiongnu resistance. As the battle ends, Li and Zhao were both summoned for court martial on the charge of failure to accomplish orders. Feeling humiliated over the charges against him and frustrated over missing his final chance at martial glory, Li committed suicide rather than facing the court. Many people blamed Wei for causing Li's death, including historian Sima Qian as well as Li's younger son Li Gan . Li Gan later went to Wei's home and attempted assassination but only managed to injure him. This incidence resulted in Li Gan's superior Huo Qubing personally killing Li Gan for insulting his uncle.

Late career and death

After the 119 BC battle, Wei would see little combat action himself. He largely remained at the capital to advise Emperor Wu on military and sometimes political matters as the Chief Defence Minister , and also assisted his nephew in governing the state when Emperor Wu was away on official tours.

Wei died in 106 BC and was buried at large tomb built to be a model of Mount Lu . The tomb was connected to that of his nephew Huo Qubing, who had died in 117 BC, and the future tomb for . Wei would not live to see the destruction of his clan , as well as the tragic fate of his sister Empress Wei and his nephew Crown Prince Liu, during the .

Wu Han (Han Dynasty)

2008-09-08T20:40:00.003-07:00

Wu Han was a famous Eastern Han Dynasty general who made great contributions to 's reestablishment of the Han Dynasty and who is commonly regarded as Emperor Guangwu's best general, but who was also known for cruelty against civilians.

Biography

Wu Han was initially a deputy to Peng Chong , the governor of Yuyang Commandery , during the brief reign of . In 23, he was sent by Peng to assist Liu Xiu while Liu was still a general under Emperor Gengshi. Liu was impressed by Wu's prowess on the battlefield, and he made Wu one of his key generals. After Liu declared himself emperor in 25, he made Wu the commander of the armed forces -- one of the three most important officials in the imperial government. It is because Emperor Guangwu greatly elevated Wu, who was Peng's deputy, while ignoring Peng in his promotions, that partly led to Peng's eventual revolt against Emperor Guangwu in 26.

Wu was strong in military tactics but not in overall strategies, and he often became the implementer of Emperor Guangwu's own excellent strategies. Wu was, to his credit, known for his hard work and lack of corruption. He also was a major advocate against pardons -- a fact later cited by the great Shu Han statesman Zhuge Liang in refusing to grant pardons.

A major fault of Wu was, as noted, he was cruel to civilians, and his soldiers were lacking in discipline with regard to pillaging civilians. In 26, for example, as Wu Han led his forces through Nanyang Commandery , his soldiers often pillaged from the people. At that time, one of Emperor Guangwu's other generals, Deng Feng , who was from Nanyang Commandery, happened to be on vacation in the commandery. He was so incensed by Wu's cruelty that he led the people in revolt. A more salient example of Wu's cruelty, however, came in 36, when Emperor Guangwu's forces, commanded by Wu, captured Chengdu , the capital of Gongsun Shu , the emperor of the rival Chengjia , to finally reunify the empire. Chengdu had surrendered after Gongsun died from battle wounds during Eastern Han forces' siege of Chengdu. Two days after Chengdu had submitted, Wu suddenly ordered that the Gongsun and Yan clans be slaughtered to the last child, and that his soldiers pillage the city of Chengdu and burn Gongsun's palace. A large number of civilians were raped or killed during the pillage. Other than an edict rebuking Wu and his deputy Liu Shang , Emperor Guangwu allowed Wu's actions to go unpunished.

For his accomplishments, Wu was created the Marquess of Guangping by Emperor Guangwu. When Wu died in 44, Emperor Guangwu ordered that he be buried with the same honors given to the great Western Han statesman Huo Guang.

Yuan Shu

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Yuan Shu was a warlord during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. He rose to prominence following the collapse of the Han court in 189. He was the younger cousin of Yuan Shao. After the death of He Jin, he led a force to slay the eunuchs as the Imperial Corps Commander of the Imperial Tiger Guard, which was located just outside the capital. Later, he participated in against Dong Zhuo led by Yuan Shao. After the dissension of this alliance, he was never on good terms with Yuan Shao again.

Yuan Shu fled to Shouchun after repeated defeats by the combined armies of Cao Cao and Yuan Shao. He declared himself emperor under the short-lived Zhong Dynasty in 197, citing superstition as his justification, including the Hanzi in his name and style name.. This audacious action made him a target of the other warlords. His extravagant lifestyle and arrogance caused many of his officers to desert him. Most devastating of the departures and defections - both to Yuan Shu personally and to the strength of his forces - was that of Sun Ce, who had recently conquered most of the Jiangdong territory under Yuan's banner. Following crushing defeats by the armies of Cao Cao, Liu Bei, and Lü Bu, Yuan Shu attempted to flee north to join Yuan Shao. Yuan Shao sent his son, Yuan Tan, to try to aid Yuan Shu, but Tan arrived too late, and Yuan Shu's forces were decimated by Liu Bei. He died shortly thereafter of his grief.

Liu Yan (Three Kingdoms)

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Liu Yan was a member of the Han Dynasty's imperial family and a warlord during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. For most of his career he was Governor of Yizhou , which he developed into an independent power base. This region would be passed on to his son , and eventually to Liu Bei, forming the basis of the Kingdom of Shu.

Life

Liu Yan was a descendant of , who was Prince of during the first half of the Han Dynasty. Because his branch of the Liu family was powerful, and because he proved himself to be an able statesman, he quickly rose through the ranks of the court. The highest post he reached was that of Taichang , or person responsible for ceremonies related to the emperor. During the reign of , the central court became a politically dangerous place, which Liu Yan wanted to distance himself from. An advisor of his, Dong Fu , suggested requesting to be governor of Yizhou, at that time considered a backward and distant province of the Han empire. Liu Yan took the advice, and with his private army set off for his new post.

After arriving in Yizhou, Liu Yan was confronted with his first crisis. Ma Xiang and Zhao Zhi raised a rebellion in the region, claiming to be part of the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Liu Yan enlisted the help of powerful local families to raise an army and put down the rebellion.

Once firmly in control of the region, he plotted to gain independence from the central Han government. The first step in his plan was to send Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu to attack the forces of the official Han governor of Hanzhong, Su Gu and take over his territory. Zhang Lu first killed Zhang Xiu, and after absorbing the latter's armies he successfully managed to kill Su Gu and take control of the territory, which created an independent buffer state between Liu Yan's Yizhou and the Han central government.

His next step in gaining control of the region was to rein in the power of the local families, who had their own wealth and large private armies. He executed the leaders of over 10 families, but another powerful family leader Jia Long banded together with others and rebelled. Although the armies of the families were powerful, Liu Yan's forces eventually prevailed. The next threat would be from the , who attacked Liu Yan's capital of Mianzhu . However, Liu Yan's forces were able to successfully defend their territory from being ravaged.

In 194, when Li Jue and Guo Si gained control of Chang'an after Dong Zhuo's death, three of Liu Yan's sons were in Chang'an serving in various government posts. Liu Yan joined forces with Han Sui and Ma Teng in an attempt to attack the capital and seize it. With the help of his sons in the city, the armies attacked, but were defeated. In the hasty retreat, Liu Fan and Liu Dan were captured by Li Jue's forces as they tried to flee Chang'an, and were tortured and killed. Liu Zhang, however, barely managed to escape and join up with his father, who returned once again to Yizhou.

In summer of the same year, Liu Yan's residence in Mianzhu was struck by lightning and burned down, forcing him to relocate his capital to Chengdu. Soon afterward, his third son Liu Mao died from illness. It is said that the grief caused by the loss of three sons caused him to develop an illness on his back, which would eventually cause his death later in the year.

His death left his fourth and youngest son Liu Zhang in control of Yizhou.

Liu Yan in ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

In the ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', a fictionalized and dramaticised account of the Three Kingdoms period, Liu Yan is governor of Youzhou during the events of the Yellow Turban Rebellion. In this post, he meets Liu Bei. There is no record of him having held this post in Records of the Three Kingdoms, but it is used as a plot device to develop a connection between Liu Bei and Liu Zhang, who later in the story welcomes Liu Bei into Shu.

Family

*Liu Yu
*Liu Fan
*Liu Dan
*Liu Mao
*

Liu Yan (general)

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Liu Yan , courtesy name Bosheng , was a general of one of the major uprisings against China's Xin Dynasty and its emperor, Wang Mang. Although he would have military successes, he would die early as a victim of political intrigue. His brother Liu Xiu, however, would eventually found the Eastern Han Dynasty .

Family background

Liu Yan was the sixth generation descendant of of the Former Han. He was the son of Liu Qin , magistrate of Nandun . Liu Qin was the son of Liu Hui , vice governor in charge of military affairs for Julu commandery . Liu Hui was the son of Liu Wai , governor of Yulin commandery . Liu Wai was the son of Liu Mai , known posthumously as Marquess Jie of Chongling . Liu Mai was the son of Liu Fa , known posthumously as Prince Ding of Changsha . The prince of Changsha was a brother of , a famous emperor of the Former Han, and he was the son of Emperor Jing.

Liu Qin was married to the daughter of one Fan Chong , and he and his wife had three sons -- Liu Yan, Liu Zhong , and Liu Xiu. Liu Qin died early, and the brothers were raised by their uncle Liu Liang . Liu Yan was ambitious, and ever since Wang Mang usurped the Han throne in 8 and established Xin Dynasty, Liu Yan was constantly considering starting a rebellion to restore the Han Dynasty. Liu Xiu, in contrast, was a careful man who was content to be a farmer.

Rebellion against Xin

In 22, with virtually the entire empire rebelling against Wang Mang's incompetent rule, Liu Yan prepared his rebellion. He planned, along with his brothers, and Li Tong and his cousin Li Yi , to kidnap the governor for Nanyang Commandery and call for the people of the commandery to join him. When the young men of their home territory of Chongling heard about the rebellion, they were all scared to join -- until they saw that Liu Xiu was part of the rebellion as well, figuring that if even a careful man like Liu Xiu was part of the rebellion, the rebellion was carefully planned.

However, the news of the plan leaked out, and Li Tong and Li Yi barely escaped with their lives . Liu Yan changed his plan and persuaded two branches of the Lülin -- the Xinshi Force and Pinglin Force to join forces with him, and they had some military success. Encouraged, Liu Yan made a frontal assault against Wancheng , the capital of Nanyang Commandery -- and suffered a major loss. Liu Yan and Liu Xiu, along with their sister Liu Boji , survived, but their brother Liu Zhong and sister Liu Yuan died in the battle. Liu Yan's allies, seeing his defeat, considered leaving him, but Liu Yan was able to persuade them, along with another branch of the Lülin, the Xiajiang Force , to join him. In 23, they had a major victory against Xin forces, killing Zhen Fu , the governor of Nanyang Commandery.

Being passed over as emperor

By this point, many other rebel leaders had become jealous of Liu Yan's capabilities, and while a good number of their men admired Liu Yan and wanted him to become the emperor of a newly declared Han Dynasty, they had other ideas. They found another local rebel leader, Liu Xuan, a third cousin of Liu Yan, who was claiming the title of General Gengshi at the time and who was considered a weak personality, and requested that he be made emperor. Liu Yan initially opposed this move and instead suggested that Liu Xuan carry the title "Prince of Han" first . The other rebel leaders refused, and in early 23, Liu Xuan was proclaimed emperor. Liu Yan became prime minister .

Death

After Emperor Gengshi's forces decisively defeated Wang Mang's last major force -- which had sought to crush the rebels with overwhelming force -- at the Battle of Kunyang , Emperor Gengshi quickly became at least nominally acknowledged by most of the empire as the legitimate Han emperor. However, Emperor Gengshi remained fearful of Liu Yan's capabilities and keenly aware that many of Liu Yan's followers were angry that he was not made emperor. One, Liu Ji , was particularly critical of Emperor Gengshi. Emperor Gengshi arrested Liu Ji and wanted to execute him, but Liu Yan tried to intercede. Emperor Gengshi, encouraged by Li Yi and Zhu Wei , took this opportunity to execute Liu Yan as well. Liu Xiu barely survived after Emperor Gengshi became ashamed of what he had done to Liu Yan.

After Liu Yan's death, Liu Xiu took his sons in and raised them. After Liu Xiu eventually proclaimed himself emperor, founding the Eastern Han Dynasty, in 25, he took steps to honor Liu Yan's sons Liu Zhang and Liu Xing . In 26, he created Liu Zhang Prince of Taiyuan and Liu Xing Prince of Lu . In 39, he posthumously honored Liu Yan with the title Prince Wu of Qi .

Liu Yao (warlord)

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Liu Yao was an official in the Jiangdong region during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. He ruled for a brief period of time before Sun Ce invaded and conquered his territory, and his Chinese style name was Zhengli .

Life

Liu Yao was an administrative official greatly respected by all, including his superiors and subordinates, as well as ordinary civilians. Liu Yao came from an aristocrat family, and he was the younger brother of Liu Dai, who was equally famous for his capability. Liu Yao's elder uncle Liu Chong was famed for his uncorrupted conducts, and his father Liu Yu was the governor of Shanyang . Liu Yao became instantly famous when he was just 19, after he rescued one of his uncle kidnapped by bandits. Liu Yao excelled in his study like his older brother Liu Dai, and became the Maocai , the outstanding candidate recommended to the imperial court from the state. Each year, only a single Maocai could be recommended by a state, and the governor of the state where Liu Yao's family resided was complaining that Liu Dai was selected the previous year and if Liu Yao was selected this year, it would appear his family had monopolozied the system, but people countered that the Liu brothers was recommended because they were indeed outstanding, and Liu Yao was selected.

Unfortunately, Liu Yao was not a good military commander despite being a good administrator. When Sun Ce attacked him, many his advisors correctly suggested to him that he should name Taishi Ci as the commander-in-chief of his force to defend themselves against Sun Ce, but Liu Yao refused, fearing that Taishi Ci was a fugitive who had just joined him, and his reputation would be tarnished for favoritism, since he was very good friend with Taishi Ci. The mistake proved to be fatal for Liu Yao and his defeat was generally the same as described in the Romance of Three Kingdoms, and Liu Yao soon died at the age of 42 after fled to Dantu . After Taishi Ci surrendered to Sun Ce and sent to ask the surrender of Liu Yao's remaining force, Liu Yao's son agreed and more than ten thousand begun their service to Sun Ce, with Liu Yao's son eventually rose in ranks in later eras under Sun Quan.

In ''Romance of Three Kingdoms''

In the Romance of Three Kingdoms, Liu Yao was depicted as an imcompetent warlord and was only given a short description as follows:

Sun Ce was rapidly expanding his forces and reclaiming lands he perceived as the rightful property of the . Alongside his father's already impressive army, Sun Ce invaded the lands of Eastern Wu, which were under the protection and rule of Liu Yao at the time. Forming an alliance with Wang Lang (governor of Guiji and Yan Baihu , Liu Yao's forces clashed with Sun Ce's invading army, leading to many deaths in both camps. Yan Baihu was quickly defeated and slain by Sun Ce's newly recruited officer, Dong Xi, while Wang Lang's forces were eventually destroyed, forcing him to surrender Guiji to the Sun family. Liu Yao was now faced with the task of defending the lands of Wu single handedly, while Sun Ce had gained a tremendous advantage through the capture of a local city which he could now use to rally and support his army. Liu Yao was eventually defeated by Sun Ce in battle.

Liu Yu (2nd century)

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Liu Yu was an official of the Later Han Period. According to the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, during the time of the Yellow Turban Rebellion, he was the Governor of You Province in the northeast of China; his call for volunteers to fight the rebellion in his province was the event which led to Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei swearing the Peach Garden Oath and raising their first ever army.

During the chaos stemming from the tyranny of Dong Zhuo, formed to challenge Dong Zhuo at first had a plan to declare Liu Yu as Emperor . However, he declined. He was later killed by the warlord Gongsun Zan under false accusations that he did in fact want to be emperor.

Lu Wan

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Lu Wan , was born in Pei .

Background

Lu Wan was once the friend of future Chinese emperor , and helped him to defeat their enemy Xiang Yu. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, he was inaugurated as the King of Yan .

Rebelling and death

When another general,Han Xin revolted against the Han court but failed to be executed, he became feared about his future and decided to rebel, but his force could not match the Han, and he fled to Xiongnu and died there.

Lu Zhi (minister)

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For the Yuan Dynasty literary figure see Lu Zhi .

Lu Zhi was a loyal minister of the late Han Dynasty during the Han Dynasty Period of China. Lu Zhi became famous for being the teacher of both Liu Bei and Gongsun Zan. While as an attendant, Lu Zhi produced very successful results leading an army against that of the Yellow Turbans. Lu Zhi then later became a minister of letters and warned against Dong Zhuo's sudden displacement of Emperor Shao. Lu Zhi also had a son, Lu Yu, who later became Consultant Foreman Clerk in the Department of Legal Adminastration under Wei.

Lu Bu

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Lü Bu was a military general and later minor warlord during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. According to the '''', Lü Bu was a master in horseback riding and archery, and was thus known as the Flying General. His image as a handsome and mighty warrior wielding a '''' known as the "Sky Piercer" on top of his steed Red Hare was later popularized by the 14th-century historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''. In the story, he is the single most powerful warrior in all of China, comparable to the Greek hero Achilles, though he is not completely invincible.

Besides being matchless on the battlefield, Lü Bu was also notorious for having betrayed and slain two separate masters . He was perhaps most well-known for his amorous relationship with the most likely fictional Diao Chan which led to his slaying of his adoptive father Dong Zhuo, the tyrannical warlord who held the puppet figurehead in his control.

Lü Bu was eventually defeated and captured by Cao Cao in the city of Xiapi. Under Liu Bei's suggestion, Cao Cao had Lü Bu hanged.

Life

Services under Ding Yuan and Dong Zhuo

A local of the county of Jiuyuan in the Wuyuan Commandery , Lü Bu started his career as the Chief Secretary under Bingzhou Governor Ding Yuan. In 189, Ding Yuan led his troops into Luoyang to assist General-in-Chief He Jin to eliminate the powerful eunuch faction. However, He Jin was soon assassinated and a bloody clash between the eunuchs and government officials that ensued saw the capital plunged into chaos.

Dong Zhuo, another warlord summoned into Luoyang by He Jìn, quickly established control. Under the enticement from this rising power, Lü Bu soon defected. He even severed his former master's head and brought it to Dong Zhuo as a gesture of allegiance. The duo then swore to be father and son.

To consolidate his power, Dong Zhuo placed in the throne a puppet emperor and moved the capital west to Chang'an. These acts, coupled with his tyrannical and cruel ways, angered many and the risk of assassination was high. For his personal safety, Dong Zhuo depended heavily on Lü Bu, who had by then been promoted to Knight General . The son would be seen beside the father almost all the time.

However, in his frequent bouts of temper Dong Zhuo would hurl a halberd at Lü Bu. Although the agile Lü Bu could always duck these throws, and Dong Zhuo's fury would dissipate quickly, Lü Bu nonetheless bore a furtive displeasure against his adoptive father. Furthermore, being entrusted to guard the residence of Dong Zhuo, Lü Bu held an amorous affair with one of Dǒng Zhuò's concubines. For this he was constantly in fear of being discovered.

In 192, encouraged by Imperial Minister of the Interior Wang Yun, Lü Bu finally made up his mind to murder Dong Zhuo. Bringing along a dozen trusted men, including Cavalry Captain Li Su, Lü Bu greeted Dong Zhuo at the palace gate. When Li Su stepped up and stabbed Dong Zhuo, the warlord cried out for his son. But saying "This is an imperial order," Lü Bu delivered the final blow, skewering the tyrant like a pig.

Days of exile

After the death of Dong Zhuo, rumors spread that the court intended to execute all his former troops from . When a royal decree of pardon was not issued, former subjects of Dong Zhuo, Li Jue and Guo Si, staged a coup and defeated Lü Bu within ten days. Escaping from Chang'an, Lü Bu went to Yuan Shu in . Deterred by Lü Bu's fickleness, however, Yuan Shu declined to keep him.

Lü Bu then headed north to seek a position under Yuan Shao. Having been given some troops by the northern warlord, Lü Bu successfully flushed out the bandit army under Zhang Yan. However, with his own force growing in strength, Lü Bu was beginning to seem like a threat to Yuan Shao. Sensing this himself, Lü Bu then bid his short-term master farewell. Yuan Shao sent assassins after Lü Bu but it was for naught; Lü Bu managed to slip away.

In 194, while Cao Cao was away on a campaign against in , his subjects Zhang Miao and Chen Gong rebelled and handed to Lü Bu. When Cao Cao heard the news, he quickly turned back and laid siege on Lü Bu in Puyang. After more than a hundred days of stalemate, a famine breakout forced Lü Bu to give up his position.

Occupation of Xuzhou

Thinking that by forcing Cao Cao's retreat from Xuzhou he had done Xuzhou a favor, Lü Bu then headed for Xiapi to seek refuge under Liu Bei, who was then the governor of Xuzhou. In 196, however, Lü Bu turned on his host and took over Xiapi, proclaiming himself the governor and sending Liu Bei to the nearby town of Xiaopei .

In the same year, Yuan Shu sent a force led by Ji Ling to attack Liu Bei. Fearing that the defeat of Liu Bei would expose his backdoor to Yuan Shu, Lü Bu made camp south of Xiaopei and brought Ji Ling and Liu Bei together. The Flying General then had a halberd erected at the campground gate. Urging peace between both parties, Lü Bu extracted their promises to withdraw troops if he could hit the sharp tongue of the halberd with an arrow. From afar, Lü Bu fired a shot and the missile came in squarely on its target. Awed by such mastery in archery, the two sides then held true to their words.

To ward off the expansion of Cao Cao's power, Yuan Shu then offered to ally with Lü Bu. Lü Bu initially agreed but soon regretted. He even sent men to retrieve , who was on her way to be married to Yuan Shu's son. She was the daughter of Lady Yan, Lü Bu's first wife. Lü Bu also imprisoned Yuan Shu's envoy and sent the captive to Cao Cao as a sign of friendship.

In 198, however, Lü Bu again switched his allegiance to Yuan Shu and attacked Liu Bei in Xiaopei. The defeated Liu Bei sought help from Cao Cao, who then personally led a force on Xiapi. After three months of siege and many consecutive losses, Lü Bu subjects were down in morale and defected. Lü Bu had no choice but to surrender himself, but in some versions, his subjects grew tired of his cruel ways and tied him up while he was sleeping and presented him to Cao Cao.

Tightly bound and brought before Cao Cao, Lü Bu pledged his service. However, being reminded by Liu Bei of the fate of Ding Yuan and Dong Zhuo, Cao Cao had the dangerous captive hanged. However, some say that Cao Cao had Lü Bu strangled, a death punishment given to women, to show that Lü Bu was a coward who pleaded for his life.

Lü Bu in ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', a historical novel by Luo Guanzhong, was a romanticization of the events that occurred before and during the Three Kingdoms era in ancient China. It painted Lü Bu as an unbeatable warrior in duels but an incapable leader of armies, being further marred with character flaws. While staying true to history in the general course of events, Luo Guanzhong exaggerated or sentimentalised many stories about Lü Bu, drawing inspirations from folklore and traditional operas. These stories include:

Defection to Dong Zhuo

Lü Bu first appeared in Chapter 3 as the adopted son of Ding Yuan, who opposed Dong Zhuo's plan to depose the emperor. Dong Zhuo intended to kill Ding Yuan but feared the strength of Lü Bu. Li Su, a general under Dong Zhuo and a fellow villager of Lü Bu, then volunteered to persuade the formidable warrior to defect.

Bringing along a famous steed named the Red Hare, a thousand taels of gold, dozens of pearls and a jade belt, Li Su came to see Lü Bu, who was encamped outside the city. It did not take much persuasion to convince Lü Bu to betray his master, as he felt continued service under Ding Yuan was a dead end. That very night, Lü Bu carried a sword into the tent of Ding Yuan, who was reading under the candlelight. Ding Yuan questioned him as to why he was holding the sword. Quickly sensing that Lü Bu had switched sides, Ding Yuan tried to escape but was unsuccessful.

With a stroke of his sword Lü Bu cut down his master and father's head, which he brought to Dong Zhuo the next morning. Lü Bu then took Dong Zhuo as his new adoptive father, who was overjoyed and showered his newly adopted son with more gifts. The presence of Lü Bu at his side deterred future assisins.

Battle with three heroes at Hulao Pass

Since he placed the puppet Emperor Xian in the throne, Dong Zhuo's tyrannical and cruel ways had angered many warlords around the country. The warlords under Yuan Shao in 190 and came for Dong Zhuo in the capital Luoyang to vanquish him.

However, they were stopped at Hulao Pass, 50 '''' from Luoyang. Riding forth on his Red Hare, his halberd in hand, dressed in the finest silver armor and wearing a twin pheasent-tail headpiece, Lü Bu taunted for challengers to duel him. Every warrior who came within range of his halberd were either maimed horribly or met a swift, bloody death. Amid the chaotic screams of panic and death, Lü Bu heard a loud, bass voice call him a "bastard slave with three last names". Wielding his Eight-Zhang Serpent Spear, Zhang Fei shouted the insult at Lü Bu to get his attention and galloped out to fight him.

Zhang Fei was said to have wielded the strength of a hundred men in battle, but he struggled against Lü Bu for more than fifty bouts,either side unable to gain an advantage. Then Guan Yu, brandishing his Green Dragon Crescent Blade, dashed out to assist his brother. The three fighters were engaged in another thirty bouts, but still Lü Bu held his ground. Then Liu Bei, holding up his Dual Swords, also joined the battle.

Like a merry-go-round, the three brothers galloped in a circle caging Lü Bu inside, who finally began to tire. Whenever Lü Bu tried to attack one, the other two would ride in and attak his exposed flanks forcing him back on the defensive, and soon he became exhausted. Unable to face the combined efforts of his three opponents at once, Lü Bu then made a feign at Liu Bei, whose martial ability he determined was the least of the three, and retreated through the resulting gap back to the pass gate. The Trio chased after Lü Bu but due to the speed of Red Hare, his horse, they could not keep up with him. However they abandoned the chase after they spotted Dong Zhuo and then pursued him unsuccessfully.

Slaying of Dong Zhuo

After Dong Zhuo moved the capital to the more strategically sound Chang'an, Minister of Interior Wang Yun started to contemplate a plot to assassinate the tyrant by using Diaochan, a song girl who was brought up in his household but whom he treated like his own daughter, to plant the seed of dissension between Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu.

Inviting Lü Bu over one night, Wang Yun asked Diaochan to serve wine to the guest. Lü Bu was immediately seized by the girl's beauty. Well aware of this, Wang Yun then promised to marry Diaochan to the mighty warrior.

A few days later, however, Wang Yun laid a feast for Dong Zhuo and repeated the feat. Like Lü Bu, Dong Zhuo could not lift his eyes off Diaochan, who also displayed her prowess in song and dance. Dong Zhuo then brought Diaochan home and made her his concubine.

When Lü Bu heard about this the next morning, he headed for Dong Zhuo's bedroom and peeped in through the window. There he saw Diaochan sitting up grooming her hair while Dong Zhuo was still asleep. Seeing Lü Bu's reflection in the pond near the window, Diaochan then put up a sorrowful expression and pretended to wipe tears off her eyes with a handkerchief.

When Dong Zhuo fell sick a month later, Lü Bu took the chance to see Diaochan on the pretext of asking after Dong Zhuo's health, but this time Dong Zhuo woke up in time to see Lü Bu staring fixedly at Diaochan. Lü Bu was then shoved out and forbidden to enter the inner chambers henceforth.

Then one day, while Dong Zhuo was holding a conversation with Emperor Xian, Lü Bu stole to his adoptive father's residence and met with Diaochan in the Fengyi Pavilion . Weeping, Diao Chan pled with Lü Bu to rescue her from Dong Zhuo vowing to drown herself in the pond rather than spend another minute with the fat tyrant. Taken in by Diaochan's act, Lü Bu placed his halberd aside and held Diaochan in his arms while comforting her with promises to for her rescue.

Back at the palace, Dong Zhuo realised that Lü Bu had slipped away. Returning to his residence, he found the Red Hare horse outside and realised that Lü Bu had gone against his orders and reentered the inner chambers. In a huff, Dong Zhuo entered his residence to find the duo in the pavilion. The startled Lü Bu turned to flee, forgetting to retrieve his halberd in the process. Dong Zhuo grabbed the halberd and gave chase. Being too obese, Dong Zhuo could not catch up with the agile Lü Bu. He then hurled the halberd at Lü Bu but the latter fended it off and got away.

After the incident, Lü Bu was becoming increasingly displeased with Dong Zhuo. This displeasure was further enticed by Wang Yun, who suggested subtly that Lü Bu take Dong Zhuo's life. Lü Bu attempted to argue for Dong Zhuo's paternal relationship to himself, but Wang Yun dismissed it, saying, "His surname is Dong and yours is Lü. Where were the paternal feelings when he threw that halberd at you?" Upon this, Lü Bu made up his mind to kill Dong Zhuo.

The conspirators then sent Li Su to fetch Dong Zhuo from his castle in the county of Mei under the pretense that the emperor intended to abdicate the throne to the warlord. Despite several ill omens, the overjoyed Dong Zhuo came to the palace gate, where his troops were barred from entering. As Dong Zhuo's carriage neared the palace building, soldiers loyal to Wang Yun surrounded the carriage and stabbed Dong Zhuo with spears.

Dong was however injured only in the arms due to the breastplate he had taken the caution to wear that day. He then cried out for Lü Bu. Unfortunately for Dong Zhuo, he was impaled in the throat by Lü Bu's halberd like a wild pig, while Lü Bu proclaimed, "I have a royal decree to slay the rebel!" It was said that Lü Bu not only skewered his stepfather, but also his carriage as well, with the bloody tip of his halberd sticking out the back. Not content with this slaughter, Lu Bu called for the death of Li Ru as well.

Lü Bu's downfall

In 198, Cao Cao and Liu Bei formed a short-term alliance and laid siege on Lü Bu in Xiapi. The siege dragged on for two months without significant gains. Two advisors to Cao Cao, Xun Yu and Guo Jia, then suggested flooding the city with water from the Yi River and Si River .

As the water level rose and submerged the city gates, Lü Bu's subjects rushed to inform their leader, but Lü Bu dismissed the threat on account that his Red Hare could run as well in water as on land. Thereupon he returned to his wine cups and consorts. However, heavy indulgence in alcohol and women had wasted his strength away such that one day Lü Bu looked into the mirror and found himself looking thin and pallid. Making the resolution to quit drinking, Lü Bu then passed an order for all within the city to keep off wine.

One day, Hou Cheng, an officer under Lü Bu, caught a defector who attempted to steal fifty horses and give it to the enemy. Hou Cheng then prepared barrels of wine to celebrate with his colleagues. Fearing wrath of Lü Bu, he then had five bottles sent to his superior to appease the latter, which turned out to a terrible mistake. Seeing the bottles of wine, Lü Bu was enraged at the opposition to his alcoholic ban, and had Hou Cheng thrashed sixty times as punishment.

The unhappy Hou Cheng then plotted with two colleagues, Song Xian and Wei Xu, to betray Lü Bu to the enemy. Under the cover of the night Hou Cheng stole Lü Bu's Red Hare and galloped out of the only gate not submerged in water towards Cao Cao's camp.

The next morning, Cao Cao's troops launched a fierce attack on the city. Lü Bu had to personally take part in the defense of the walls. The battle dragged into high noon and the attackers backed off for a rest. The exhausted Lü Bu then slept on top of the wall.

Taking the opportunity, Song Xian and Wei Xu tied Lü Bu up and hoisted a white flag. The two also threw Lü Bu's halberd down the wall as proof. Seeing the signals, Cao Cao's troops then poured into the city and seized it in no time.

After he had been captured he was taken in front of Cao Cao. Lü Bu attempted to appease Cao Cao, claiming that together, they would conquer China and the world beyond easily. Cao Cao, who had a penchant for recruiting powerful officers, was nearly swayed. To reinforce his point, Lü Bu then tried to get Liu Bei to plea for him. Liu Bei, however, had seen through him, and said to Cao Cao, "Don't you remember what happened to Ding Yuan and Dong Zhuo?" The warlord remembered Lü Bu's reputation, and being suspicious by nature, had him strangled and then beheaded as a precaution. The last words Lü Bu ever said were threats directed at Liu Bei, claiming that he would be waiting to settle the score in hell.

In other media

Because of his reputation as an unmatched and highly skilled warrior in the Three Kingdoms saga, Lü Bu is often held in high regard in works based on the Three Kingdoms, sometimes even in works not based on the Three Kingdoms. These include video games, where he is often given the highest War/Attack stats, and in anime and manga. Some examples for these are listed below.

*Lü Bu is a character in the Koei video game series '''', usually as one of the icon characters.

*Lü Bu is a character in the popular game series ''Dynasty Warriors'' where he is the strongest character. He is most often portrayed wearing the pheasant-tailed headpiece he wore, as in his traditional image. In ''Dynasty Warriors 6'' he has black armour with a quad halberd sort of weapon, still called Sky Piercer. In any of the series, attempting to fight him alone and below a certain level is usually suicide.

*In ''Warriors Orochi'', Lu Bu serves Orochi as one of his top officers. In this crossover series between ''Dynasty Warriors'' and ''Samurai Warriors'', Lu Bu finally found a worthy challenger to fight him, Honda Tadakatsu, who leads an independent force against Orochi, and is constantly looking for an excuse to duel him. In the sequel game, he still served Orochi, but eventually went on to betray him and formed up his own force, temporarily allying with Wu.

*In Capcom's ''Destiny of an Emperor'' for the '''' Lü Bu appears as a character with the highest attack stat. In the game, the player is capable of recruiting him into Liu Bei's party albeit only temporarily.

*Lü Bu is one of the fighters in the 's '''', although his name is instead "," the Japanese pronunciation of his name.

*The character Ryofu Housen , in the anime short series ''Ikki Tousen'', is also roughly based on Lü Bu.

*In the manga and OVA anime ''Ryofuko-chan'' , Lü Bu is reincarnated as the elementary school student Ryofuko.

Ma Teng

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Ma Teng was a warlord during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. He controlled the Liangzhou region together with his sworn brother Han Sui. Ma Teng and Han Sui were involved in efforts to gain autonomy from the central Han government. Ma Teng was the father of Ma Chao and the uncle of Ma Dai, who would later serve the .

Life

He was from the Maoling region of Fufeng Province . His father, Ma Ping, was a minor official in Tianshui, but because of some dispute he was dismissed from his post, and went to live among the Qiang people. He married a Qiang woman, who gave birth to Ma Teng.

When Ma Teng was young, he lived in extreme poverty and it is said that he collected firewood in the mountains and sold it to make money. When he grew up, his height was said to have been over 8 tall, . It is also said that although he was fierce in appearance, he was kind to others and wise, and was respected by many.

In 184, during the final years of 's reign, the Qiang people in Liangzhou rose up against the local government. They were joined by warlords Han Sui, Bian Zhong , Beigong Yu , and Liwen Hou . The official Han governor of Liangzhou, Geng Bi , gathered forces to put down the rebellion, and Ma Teng volunteered as a foot soldier. His skills in battle against the rebels were recognized, and he rose through the ranks of the soldiery. However, when Geng Bi was killed in battle by the rebel army, Ma Teng switched sides and joined Han Sui. The rebellion would eventually be put down by the Han general Huangfu Song, but Ma Teng escaped along with the rebel warlords. Eventually, he and others involved in the rebellion would be given military titles by the central government.

When Li Jue and Guo Si seized power over Chang'an after Dong Zhuo's assassination, Ma Teng and Han Sui at first pledged allegiance to them, and were given the titles of General who Suppresses the East and General who Guards the West respectively. However, the relationship between the two sides quickly soured, and Ma Teng and Han Sui led their armies in an attempt to seize Chang'an. They allied themselves with the warlord , but they suffered defeats, and short on supplies they retreated back to Liangzhou.

Although Ma Teng was the sworn brother of Han Sui, the two went to war against each other over control of Liangzhou. The fighting escalated to a point where they were killing each other's wives and children. Cao Cao, who at this point had decisively defeated Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu, brokered peace between Ma Teng and Han Sui, who then pledged allegiance to Cao Cao. After this, Ma Teng was summoned to with most of his family, where his military positions were taken away. He was made captain of the city guard. His eldest surviving son Ma Chao remained behind in Liangzhou with Han Sui. When Ma Chao and Han Sui defied Cao Cao and took up arms against him, Ma Teng, along with every member of his family that accompanied him, was executed.

In ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

In the historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', Ma Teng is portrayed as a character who is loyal to the fading Han Dynasty. He joins a plot with Liu Bei and Dong Cheng to assassinate Cao Cao, but the plot is not successful and he returns to Liangzhou.

When he was later recalled to Xuchang by Cao Cao, he decided to again join an assassination plot, this time with Huang Kui . However, the plot was discovered and he is executed along with his sons Ma Xiu and Ma Tie. Upon hearing of his father and brothers' demise, Ma Chao becomes filled with rage and goes to war against Cao Cao to avenge their deaths. In the novel, the order of the executions and Ma Chao's rebellion are opposite of that recorded in ''''.

Family

*
*Ma Ping
*Ma Chao
*Ma Tie
*Ma Xiu
*Ma Dai

Ma Yuan (Han Dynasty)

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Ma Yuan was a general who served during the . Ma Chao of the Three Kingdoms period was his descendant.

Life and career

His military and political achievements included helping unite the empire and expeditions against the and the Wulin tribes . He fell ill during an expedition to modern Hunan in 49, and soon died afterwards. Prior to that, Ma Yuan contributed to Emperor Guangwu's defeat of the warlord Wei Xiao , who controlled the modern eastern Gansu region.

He is considered one of the more famous generals in Chinese history, not only because of his military achievements, but also because he demonstrated perseverance and respect to his friends and subordinates. In addition to his military skills, his exhortations on personal disciple were also highly regarded. His became empress to and was also highly respected.

One of his greatest achievements was the subjugation of the territory of the Nanman regions. It was for this he earned his title "Queller of the Deep." He was reportedly revered in that area , and his temple was established somewhere there. The territory he subjugated corresponds roughly with North Vietnam, and an idea of the difficulty fighting in that sphere poses can be gained from the difficulties both the Americans and French faced campaigning there in the 20th Century.

He also subjugated the Qiang. In 34 A.D., the Xianlian Qiang and a number of other tribes, raided Chinese positions in Jincheng and Longxi commanderies and were defeated by Han armies. A few months later, Lai Xi was killed on campaign against Gongsun Shu, but his assistant, Ma Yuan, Grand Administrator of Lonxi commandery, continued operations against the Qiang. In 35, the Xianlian tribe were again defeated, first at Lintao in Longxi and then along the Xining river in Jincheng commandery. In the two separate campaigns, Ma Yuan captured more than ten thousand head of horses, cattle and sheep, together with considerable stores of grain. He was wounded in the leg during one of the final engagements, and he did not completely destroy the enemy, but he did drive them away from the valley lands of Jincheng, and he was rewarded with Imperial commendation and several thousand of the animals he had captured.

Though members of the Qiang had escaped across the borders, Ma Yuan's victories in 35 had broken the power of the Xianlian tribe and had made possible a restoration of Chinese positions on the old frontiers.

In 49, Ma, while on expedition against the Wulin tribes , died during the campaign from a plague, which also killed a large number of his soldiers. After his death, Ma's deputy Geng Shu , who had disagreed with Ma's strategy, and Emperor Guangwu's son-in-law Liang Song , who had prior grudges against Ma, falsely accused Ma of many crimes, most of which are unknown to us. Two specific accusations that are known are that Ma, by the route he took against the Wulin tribes, was responsible for the plague, and that he had, while on campaigns, embezzled pearls and rhinoceros horns. The latter accusation was a misunderstanding in that one of Ma's favorite foods was Job's Tears , produced in southern China and northern Vietnam, which Ma had transported in large quantities back to the capital Luoyang. Emperor Guangwu believed these false accusations and posthumously stripped Ma of his fief and title of marquess.

Ma Yuan was the source of two Chinese idioms. One, "wrapping one's body with horse leather" , refers to being dedicated to one's responsibilities that one is willing to die on the battlefield and have his body be wrapped in horse leather; Ma had given this phrase while talking to a friend as to why he wished to continue in military service. The other, "drawing a tiger improperly results in a dog" , refers to his admonition to his nephews to be careful in their conduct and not to try to imitate a famed heroic figure of the time, Du Bao -- in that if one tried to imitate Du but was not as heroic as he was, one would end up becoming a frivolous hoodlum.

Legends

It is said that during Zhuge Liang's attempts to suppress Meng Huo and the barbarians, he was inspired by a statue of Ma Yuan which helped him to overcome one of Meng Huo's most difficult obstacles.

Li Chong (general)

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Li Chong , was the last Protector General of the Western Regions prior to Eastern Han. There is an official of him, with his name written 李崇之印信 was excavated in 1928 from by Huang Wenbi.

Peng Yue

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Peng Yue served Liu Bang. Founding minister of Han. Marquis of Jiancheng. Chancellor of Han.

Biography

Not long after Emperor Hu Hai's ascension, an uprising began, led by Chen Sheng and Wu Kuang. Xiang Liang and Xiang Yu from Jiang Dong, Ying Bu from Po Yang and Peng Yue from Yu Je all joined the uprising against the Qin Dynasty.

In the fifth year of Han, Peng Yue an Han Xin failed to meet with the army of Liu Bang at Guling, to hit a final blow at Xiang Yu, and he only did so after being rewarded with fiefs. Liu Bang rewarded him following recommendation of Zhang Liang. Peng Yue was given the land from Suiyang north to Gusheng to stimulate his advance. They finally converged at Gaixia.

Huo Qubing

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Huo Qubing , born in Linfen, Shanxi, was a general of the western Han dynasty under . Being the illegitimate son of Wei Shaoer, he was the nephew of Wei Qing and Empress Wei Zifu.

Although raised in reasonable prosperity during the early glory days of the Wei family, he exhibited outstanding military talent as a teenager. Deployed as a commander in Wei Qing's expeditions, Huo Qubing regularly led his own troops deep into enemy territory and inflicted great defeats on the Xiongnu with rapid running assaults, on one occasion claiming victory by capturing the Xiongnu Golden Statue. As a result, he gained great favour with the Emperor.

When he was 20 years old, he and Wei Qing were sent with separate armies to attack the Xiongnu on the largest-scale Han offensive to date. Huo Qubing, leading the elite divisions of the Han army, engaged the Xiongnu's Worthy Prince of the Left and routed his troops, inflicting the lethal blow of a devastating 70,443 casualties on the Xiongnu clan. He was greatly rewarded for his efforts, and his fief reached in excess of 10,000 households.

Though a brave general and highly regarded by , he paid little regard to his men. Sima Qian noted in ''Shiji'' that Huo Qubing refused to share his food with his soldiers when their provisions were low, and also regularly ordered his troops to dig up football fields for his personal amusement. However, when it came to martial glory, Huo Qubing never hesitated to share the honor with his men. One of the most famous tale is that when Emperor Wu awarded Huo a jar of precious wine for his achievement, he poured it into a creek so all his troopers drinking the water could share a taste of it. This tale gave rise to the name of the city Jiuquan . At the height of his career, many low-ranking commanders previously served under Wei Qing voluntarily came to Huo's service in the hope of achieving military glory with him.

Huo Qubing died at the early age of 24 due to a plague, possibly the result of a primitive form of biological warfare. It is believed that Xiongnu soldiers put dead horses, cows and sheeps in lakes during the Gobi Desert war to contaminate water supplies and spread infectious diseases among the Han soldiers, in a form of native witchcraft curse.

Huo's half-brother Huo Guang was later a great Han statesman who was the chief consul behind , and was instrumental in the succession of to the throne after Emperor Zhao's death.

Li Jue (Three Kingdoms)

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Li Jue was a military general under the warlord Dong Zhuo during the Three Kingdoms era of China. He took command of Dong Zhuo's army after the latter was assassinated by Lü Bu, and with the help of Fan Chou, Guo Si, and Zhang Ji he managed to take control over Chang'an, and secure power within the Imperial Court.

Like his predessesor, Li Jue bullied the emperor and abused his power in the court. He managed to scare the emperor into giving him the titles of General of the Chariots and Cavalry, Lord of Chiyang, Commandand of the Capital Districsts and was granted the battle axe of military authority.

After defeating the western army of Ma Teng and Han Sui by starvation, Li Jue and Guo Si began bickering over the issue of Li Jue and Guo Si's wife having an affair. They began fighting inside the city, with each killing thousands of soldiers and civilians. After a year of fighting, the two were finally put at ease when Li Jue received the rank of Regent General.

After moving the capital back to the ruins of Luoyang, Cao Cao marched on Li Jue on a secret Imperial Decree and defeated him. Li Jue and Guo Si ran into the western mountains and began to live as bandits and died later at the hands of their own followers.

Li Kan

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Li Kan was a general under Han Sui in the Three Kingdoms period of China.

At the Battle of Tong Pass, after Ma Chao attacked the traitor Han Sui, Li Kan escaped. Soon afterwards, he was shot by Yu Jin with an arrow meant for Ma Chao and died with honor.

Li Guang

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Lĭ Guăng , born in , was a famous general of the Han Dynasty. Nicknamed The Flying General, he fought primarily in the campaigns against the Xiongnu peoples to the north of Han China. He was known to Xiongnu as a tough opponent when it came to fortress defence, and his presence was sometimes discouraging enough for Xiongnu to abort the siege. Li Guang committed suicide shortly after the Battle of Mobei in 119 BC. He was blamed for failure to arrive in the battlefield in time , creating a gap in the encirclement and allowing Yizhixie Chanyu to escape after a confrontation battle between Wei Qing and the Chanyu's main force, whom the Han army narrowly managed to defeat. Refusing to accept the humiliation of a court martial, Li Guang took his own life.

Biography

According to the Shiji by Sima Qian, Li Guang was a man of great build, with long arms and good archery skills , able to shoot an arrow deeply into a stone on one occasion. At the same time, like his contemporaries Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, he was a caring and well-respected general who earned the respect of his soldiers. He also earned the favour of , who said of him: "If he had been born in the time of , he would have been given a fief of ten thousand households without any difficulty."

Li Guang first distinguished himself during the Rebellion of the Seven States, where he served under the Grand General Zhou Yafu. However, was unhappy about him accepted a seal given by , hence Li did not get promoted to marquessate despite his anti-rebellion achievement.

However, Li Guang's late military career was constantly haunted by repeated incidents of what would be regarded as "bad lucks" by later scholars. He had a nasty tendency of losing directions during mobilisations, and in field battles he was often outnumbered and surrounded by superior enemies. While Li Guang's fame attracted much of his enemies' attention, Li Guang's troop's relative indiscipline and his lack of strategic planning often put him and his regiments in awkward situations. Li Guang himself narrowly escaped capture after his army was annihilated during an offensive campaign at Yanmen in 129 BC, was stripped off official titles and demoted to commoner with fellow defeated general Gongsun Ao after paying parole. During a separate campaign in 120 BC , Li Guang, this time with his son Li Gan by his side, was surrounded again by superior enemies. His 4,000 troops suffered heavy casualties before reinforcements led by Zhang Qian arrived in time for the rescue. The rules of the Han army dictated a commander's achievement was measured only according to his number of enemy kills minus the casualties of his own side. These, together with Li Guang's political naivety, denied him of any chance of promotion to marquessate, his lifelong dream. even secretly ordered Wei Qing not to assign Li Guang to important missions , on the ground of Li Guang's famed "terrible fortune" .

Li Ling (Han Dynasty)

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Li Ling , courtesy name Shaoqing , was a Han Dynasty general, who served under the reign of and later defected to Xiongnu after being defeated in an expedition in 99 BC.

Early Life

Li Ling was born in Chengji in the Longxi region. He was the grandson of the famous "Flying General" Li Guang. According to the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' and the ''Book of Han'', Li Ling was good at , liked making friends and enjoyed a good reputation, much like his grandfather. As a result, Emperor Wu thought of him as future military hopeful, and appointed the young Li as a high-profile imperial servant , a position in which Wei Qing and Huo Qubing had previously served.

Li Ling was later assigned a military position to the border front, and once led 800 men over 1,000 miles into Xiongnu territory for a mission. Although he did not encounter any enemy, Emperor Wu soon promoted him to the role of cavalry commander, assigned him to lead 5,000 elite infantry, and placed him in charge of training local reserve forces in Jiuquan and Zhangye . A few years later, Li Ling started serving regular military roles, but limited to providing escort for higher-level generals such as Li Guangli .

Battle, Defeat and Defection

In 99 BC, Emperor Wu ordered Li Guangli to lead 30,000 men for an offensive from Jiuquan against Xiongnu in the Tianshan region. Li Ling was assigned to provide escort for Li Guangli's , a role Li Ling disliked very much. Li Ling therefore requested Emperor Wu to allow him to lead an individual regiment of his own to the east. Li Ling commented that he led a personal legion of "warriors from and extraordinary swordsmen", who were capable of "strangling tigers and ". Emperor Wu initially frowned at the idea, and warned Li Ling that there was no additional cavalry available to assign to him. Li Ling then bragged that he would crush the Chanyu's main tribe with nothing more than his 5,000 infantry. Impressed by Li Ling's enthusiasm, Emperor Wu agreed and gave him the go-ahead.

A senior general Lu Bode was assigned to assist Li Ling. However, Lu did not like the idea of supporting Li in such a mission, and suggested Emperor Wu to delay the mission until springtime as Xiongnu's fighting strength often peaked in autumn, so then they could attack with 5,000 men each from two columns. Emperor Wu was angry at Lu's request, thinking that Li Ling collaborated with Lu to do this because of fear towards battles. He then ordered Li's troops to mobilize immediately.

Li Ling's army marched north for 30 days, and sketched maps for the journey encountered. A junior officer named Chen Bule was sent back to report about the progress. Upon seeing Emperor Wu, Chen started boasting tales of how hard Li Ling and his men had been fighting the enemy . Pleasant with the good news, Emperor Wu promoted Chen as a reward.

Li Ling's troops, however, encountered the Chanyu's main forces upon arrival at Altay Mountains , and was quickly encircled by 30,000 cavalry between two mountains. With no supply and reinforcement , Li ordered his troops to use the wagons as cover and form up for battle. Outnumbering the Han army so much, Xiongnu rashly attacked Li Ling's forces front-on, only to suffer heavy casualties under Han troop's crossbow barrage and the subsequent pursuit attack. The Chanyu then summoned a 80,000-strong reinforcement, forcing Li Ling to battle hard while retreating into a valley, suffering significant casualty. Li Ling then found that his troopers were low in both morale and , leading him to search and kill many women secretly hidden in the wagons, who were serving as prostitutes for his soldiers. Li's forces then battled Xiongnu for another day, killing 3,000 enemies. He then retreated southeast for the next 4 to 5 days into a large swamp, where they managed to survive a fire attack. The Chanyu then sent his own son to command the pursuit, only to suffer further casualty when Li Ling's forces took refuge in a forest and repelled the attack with their repeating crossbows and melee combat. Up to this point, the Chanyu began to suspect that Li Ling was planning to draw them into an ambush close to the Han border, but decided to intensify the attacks as he considered it humiliating not able to defeat such as small forces.

For Li Ling, the situation went from bad to worse. The Xiongnu charges frequented over 20 times a day, and were only repelled after suffering another 2,000 casualty. However, a low-level officer from Li's army, Guan Gan , defected in retaliation to an insult from his superiors, bringing to Xiongnu the news that Li's forces were cut off from supplies and running out of arrows. Chanyu then pressed on his attacks from small mountain trails, trapping Li Ling into a valley, then proceeding to shoot the Han forces from above the cliffs. Li Ling's men returned shots from the bottom, depleted 500,000 arrows in one day, and was forced to abandon their wagon transports. The 3,000 remaining soldiers were in such a dire state that axles were chopped for use as weapons, and many officers resorted to daggers for combat. The Xiongnu forces then bombarded the Han troops with boulders, killing many.

One night, Li Ling left the camp refusing any followers, claiming that he was seeking to assassinate the Chanyu on his own. He returned in vain, crying pessimistically that they were solidly defeated and all going to die. His subordinates suggested the idea of a false surrender, as another Han general Zhao Ponu previously had done, but Li Ling refused flatly, "''Shut up! If I don't die in battle, I'm not a !''" He ordered his troops to destroy the flags and bury the s. Every soldier was given some food and ice, and told to wait and escape scattered altogether. In midnight the breakout began, but no one was there to even beat the . Li Ling and his second-in-command Han Yannian , each with only a small escort, rode and fought under the pursuit of several thousand Xiongnu cavalry. After Han was killed in combat, Li Ling cried "''I have no to return and meet the Emperor!''", and voluntarily surrendered himself to the Xiongnu. Out of his 5,000 men, only 400 made it out of the encirclement back to the border.

Aftermath of Defection

Emperor Wu initially thought Li Ling was killed in action, and summoned his family to pay tribute. However, he observed no signs of sorrow from Li's family and thus grew suspicious. As the battlefield was not too far from the border, it was not long before news of Li's surrender arrived. The Emperor became furious and ordered the court martial of Chen Bule, who committed suicide upon the message. The public opinion condemned Li as a traitor, and imperial officials began purposing punishing Li's family for his crime of treason. Sima Qian , a senior imperial historian and a friend of Li, was the only person defending him in the Han court. Emperor Wu was offended by Sima’s words of defence, taking them as an attack on his brother-in-law Li Guangli, who had also fought against the Xiongnu without much success. Sima was arrested for the crime of ''grand insult'', and was tried and sentenced to death. Although his s were allowed to be paroled to lesser punishments, Sima Qian was not rich enough to pay it, so he was forced to accept the to castration and jailed for three years.

Despite his majestic rage, Emperor Wu soon regretted his decision to allow Li Ling mobilize so hastely, and also realized what a mistake it was not listening to Lu Bode's suggestion. As a gesture, he rewarded the survivors from Li Ling's regiment.

One year later, Emperor Wu sent Gongsun Ao in a rescue mission to retrieve Li Ling. Gongsun failed to achieve anything, but captured a Xiongnu soldier, who revealed that "Li Shaoqing" was training Xiongnu troops for the Chanyu. Concluding that Li Ling's treachery was evident, Emperor Wu had Li Ling's family executed. Since then, everyone from Longxi perceived the Li family as disgrace. However, it was later revealed that the one who trained Xiongnu forces was another high-profile Han defector called Li Xu , who happened to share the same courtesy name. Li Ling hence bore a deep hatred towards Li Xu, and arranged his assassination.

Life after Defection

As a young and high-profile defector, the Chanyu held generous regard of Li Ling, marrying Li his daughter and making Li Lord Youxiao , which was at the same level as Chanyu's chief adviser , Wei Lü . However, the Xiongnu Queen Dowager disliked Li Ling and wanted to have him killed. The Chanyu therefore sent Li Ling to a far northern region, and did not call him back until after the Queen Dowager died.

In 90 BC, Xiongnu invaded and , and Wuyuan again and Jiuquan later that year. Emperor Wu ordered a major counteroffensive in three columns against Xiongnu, with Li Guangli leading 70,000 men, Shang Qiucheng leading 30,000 and Mang Tong leading 40,000. The Xiongnu responded by having the entire tribes retreating further north, with a scorched earth strategy to challenge the Han army's operational limit. When the forces led by Shang Qiucheng withdrew after meeting no adversary, Xiongnu sent in Li Ling to pursue the Han forces with 30,000 cavalry. The two sides battled for nine days, ironically, at Altay Mountains. Li Ling was defeated badly by the Han forces, and retreated after suffering heavy casualties.

Li Ling was dispatched twice by the Chanyu to persuade the surrender of the detained Han ambassador Su Wu, as Li and Su used to be co-workers and good friends. Initially Li Ling was too ashamed to visit Su Wu, as he defected merely the year after Su's exile to Lake Baikal. On his first visit, Li Ling told how everyone in Su Wu's family back in China either died or remarried, hoping to sever Su's patriotic bond. Li then spoke of Emperor Wu had grown old and emotionally labile, and how he himself used to suffer over the guilt of treason but had overcome that eventually. However, Su Wu emphasized how much he valued the honor and responsibility the motherland had given him, and told Li Ling that it's either honor or death. Moved by Su Wu's unshakable valor, Li Ling tearfully exclaimed, "''Aye! Such an honorable man! I and Wei Lü have sins that dwarf the sky!''" The second time Li Ling visited Su Wu, he brought the news that Emperor Wu had passed away, which caused Su to mourn so hard that he vomited blood and almost died.

When took throne, the coregents Huo Guang and Shangguan Jie , both were old friends of Li Ling, sent the ambassador Ren Lizheng to persuade Li to return home. Ren took an opportunity to talk to Li privately, telling him that all his sins could be ed, that he needed no worry about wealth after returning and his old friends missed him. However, Li Ling refused, claiming that he already became a "foreigner" and he couldn't stand to be ashamed a second time.

Li Ling died of diseases in 74 BC, after more than 20 years in Xiongnu as a defector.

Liang Ji

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Liang Ji , courtesy name Bozhuo , was a politician and military commander of Han Dynasty China. He dominated government in the 150s together with his sister, Empress Liang Na. After his sister's death, Liang Ji was overthrown in a coup d'etat by , with the support of the eunuch faction, in 159. The Liang clan and the clan of his wife, Sun Shou , were slaughtered.

Family background and early career

Liang Ji was the oldest son of Liang Shang -- a honest official who was also the Marquess of Chengshi, being the grandson of a brother of Consort Liang, the mother of . His younger sister, Liang Na, became 's consort in 128, and was created empress in 132.

After Empress Liang became empress, Emperor Shun entrusted her father Liang Shang with great power. In 133, Emperor Shun offered to create Liang Ji a marquess, but Liang Shang humbly declined that honor on his son's behalf. In 135, Emperor Shun made Liang Shang Grand Marshall , over his own repeated objection. Liang Shang was a mild-mannered and honest man, although lacking in abilities. He did, however, trust other capable and honest officials, and during his term of office, the political scene was a lot cleaner than before.

It was probably during this time that Liang Ji married his wife, Sun Shou. She was often described by traditional historians as a temptress who was able to induce Liang to be devoted to her sexually , and she was described to have invented a good number of sexually explicit clothing items.

In 136, because both his father and his brother-in-law trusted him, Liang Ji was made the mayor of the capital Luoyang. However, what neither of them knew was that Liang Ji was violent, corrupt, and treacherous. On one occasion, one of Liang Shang's trusted advisors, Lü Fang , the magistrate for Luoyang County warned Liang Shang about Liang Ji's corruption, and Liang Shang rebuked his son. Liang Ji then sent assassins out and killed Lü, but appeared to be so mournful about it that he recommended Lü's brother Lü Yu to succeed Lü Fang and permitted Lü Yu to arrest and execute all who were suspected in the assassination, leading to the death of hundreds of people.

As Grand Marshall under Emperor Shun

In 141, Liang Shang died. Liang Ji inherited his . Later that year, Emperor Shun made him Grand Marshall, succeeding his father, and made his younger brother Liang Buyi -- an honest and humble man, relative to his brother -- mayor of Luoyang. As Grand Marshall, Liang Ji gradually eliminated the opposition and consolidated his power, often through violent, illicit, or treacherous means. For example, in 142, because he was criticized by the lower level official Zhang Gang , he intentionally made Zhang the governor of Guanglin Commandery, at that time overrun by agrarian rebels, believing that Zhang would surely be killed by these rebels.

As Grand Marshall under Emperors Chong and Zhi

Emperor Shun died in 144. His infant son Liu Bing , by Consort Yu, became emperor , and Empress Liang became empress dowager and regent. Empress Dowager Liang appeared to be diligent in governing over the empire, and she trusted several key officials with integrity to advise her on important affairs. However, she also trusted her brother Liang Ji greatly, and Liang Ji used her position to further consolidate his own. However, she was willing to go against his advice on a number of occasions, and she, for example, protected the honest official Li Gu against Liang Ji's demands to execute Li, in 145.

In 145, the young Emperor Chong died, and in an effort to be open to people, Empress Dowager Liang announced his death openly immediately. She summoned the young emperor's third cousins Liu Suan , the Prince of Qinghe, and Liu Zuan , the son of Liu Hong the Prince of Bohai, to the capital Luoyang, to be examined as potential successors. Prince Suan was probably an adult, and was described as solemn and proper, and the key officials largely favored him. However, Liang Ji wanted a young emperor whom he could control, so he convinced Empress Dowager Liang to make the seven-year-old Liu Zuan emperor . Empress Dowager Liang continued to serve as regent.

In 146, after the young Emperor Zhi showed signs that he was already cognizant of Liang Ji's corruption and offended Liang Ji by openly calling him "an arrogant general," Liang Ji had him poisoned, apparently without Empress Dowager Liang's knowledge. The key officials again largely favored Prince Suan as successor, but Liang Ji again vetoed their wishes, and instead persuaded Empress Dowager Liang to make the 14-year-old Liu Zhi , the Marquess of Liwu, who was betrothed to Empress Dowager Liang and Liang Ji's sister , emperor . Empress Dowager Liang continued to serve as regent.

As Grand Marshall under Emperor Huan

It was really during Emperor Huan's reign that Liang Ji exercised near absolute power. He tried to ensure that power by also establishing relationships with Emperor Huan's trusted eunuchs, often presenting them with great gifts, but also making show of force to anyone that he could cause the death of anyone he wanted to kill. In 147, for example, in conjunction with eunuchs Tang Heng and Zuo Guan , he falsely accused Li Gu and Prince Suan of a conspiracy to start a military rebellion. Prince Suan was demoted to be Marquess of Weishi, and he committed suicide. Li, and another key official who opposed Liang Ji, Du Qiao , were executed.

Also in 147, Emperor Huan married Liang Ji's sister Liang Nüying and created her empress.

In 150, Empress Dowager Liang died, shortly after she announced that she was returning imperial powers to Emperor Huan. However, Liang Ji remained in effective control of the government -- perhaps even more so than before, with his sister now no longer curbing his power. His wife Sun was created the Lady of Xiangcheng, with a march rivaling his own large one. Both of them built luxurious mansions with huge gardens in the rear, and collected innumerable precious items. Liang, further, forced commoners into slavery, and also falsely accused a large number of rich people of crimes, in order to execute them and confiscate their properties.

In 151, Liang made a critical error that nearly caused him great harm -- he, in contravention to imperial regulations not to bring weapons into the imperial meeting hall, strided in with his sword. The imperial secretary Zhang Ling rebuked him and moved to impeach him, and while Liang, who was actually still in control of the government, was not impeached, he was greatly embarrassed and penalized by surrendering one year's worth of salary. Because Zhang had been recommended by his brother Liang Buyi, Liang Ji became suspicious of his brother and removed him as the mayor of Luoyang -- giving that post to his own son, the 15-year-old Liang Yin , who was utterly incompetent. Liang Ji further expelled Liang Buyi's friends out of the government.

Liang Ji, apparently unsatisfied with his nearly limitless position, took a number of actions that were directly analogous to what Wang Mang did prior to his usurpation of the Han throne -- including ordering officials to recommend to Emperor Huan to enlarge his march to be as large as the Duke of Zhou; to grant him special dispensation, unprecedented since Xiao He, to walk slowly into the imperial meeting hall , to carry his sword into the meeting hall, to keep his shoes on, and to have the master of ceremonies refer to him only by rank and title, not by name; to grant him rewards as great as those granted to Huo Guang; and for him to be seated above all other imperial officials. This brought expectation that Liang might be interested in usurping the throne eventually. All who dared to criticize him invited certain death.

Loss of power and death

In 159, Liang Ji's sister Empress Liang Nüying died -- which, oddly enough, set in motion a chain of events that would end Liang Ji's power. Liang, in order to continue to control Emperor Huan, had adopted his wife's beautiful cousin , , as his own daughter, changing her family name to Liang. He and Sun gave Liang Mengnü to Emperor Huan as an imperial consort, and, after Empress Liang's death, hoped to have her eventually created empress. To completely control her, Liang Ji planned to have her mother, Lady Xuan , killed, and in fact sent assassins against her, but the assassination was foiled by the powerful eunuch Yuan She , a neighbor of Lady Xuan.

Lady Xuan reported the assassination attempt to Emperor Huan, who was greatly angered. He entered into a conspiracy with eunuchs Tang Heng, Zuo Guan, Dan Chao , Xu Huang , and Ju Yuan to overthrow Liang -- sealing the oath by biting open Dan's arm and swearing by his blood. Liang Ji had some suspicions about what Emperor Huan and the eunuchs were up to, and he investigated. The five eunuchs quickly reacted. They had Emperor Huan openly announce that he was taking back power from Liang Ji and mobilize the imperial guards to guard the palace against a counterattack by Liang, and then surrounding Liang's house and forcing him to surrender. Liang and Sun were unable to respond and committed suicide. The entire Liang and Sun clans were arrested and slaughtered. A large number of officials were executed or deposed for close association with Liang -- so many that the government was almost unable to function for some time. Liang and Sun's properties were confiscated by the imperial treasury, which allowed the taxes to be reduced by 50% for one year. The people greatly celebrated Liang Ji's death.

Liu Bao

2008-09-08T20:34:00.003-07:00

Liu Bao was the leader of the left tribe during the Three Kingdoms Period. Liu Bao united the people to create one of the five clans of the Xiongnu. When his clan suffered great internal suffering however, Deng Ai advised him to relinquish some of his power.

Liu Bao's son later founded the Sixteen Kingdoms Period state Han Zhao.

Liu Biao

2008-09-08T20:34:00.001-07:00

Liú Biǎo was the governor of the during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. He was a member of the same extended family as the Han emperors.

When the Han Dynasty became consumed with war after the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Liu Biao fought a war against the warlord, Sun Jian. One of Liu Biao's brilliant strategists, Kuai Liang, devised a plan to eliminate Sun Jian by crushing him with logs as he rode towards the main camp of Liu Biao, and succeeded. Later, Sun Jian's two elder sons, Sun Ce and Sun Quan, caused Liu Biao no end of trouble as they sought to avenge their father’s death. However, they did not cause Liu Biao's demise. Whilst Cao Cao was gaining strength, Liu Biao chose to neither help nor hinder his conquests.

Later, during Cao Cao’s decisive Battle of Guandu against Yuan Shao , Liu Biao remained neutral, despite being one of the only other warlords in a position to oppose the two powers. Liu Biao, however, eventually decided to shelter Liu Bei, an enemy of Cao Cao. This made him a target of Cao Cao’s wrath. Later, after , a large army was sent to conquer the Jingzhou. Along with Liu Bei, Liu Biao's forces took several early victories. After impressing the remnants of Yuan Shao's forces into his already grand army, however, Cao Cao's superior numbers eventually took toll on Liu Biao's defenses. With a decline in relations between Liu Biao and Liu Bei, as a result of the meddling of Cai Mao's family, Liu Biao's people were faced with difficulty.

Shortly after Cao Cao's main army began its offensive, Liu Biao died of sickness. According to the historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', long before his death, sensing his own deteriorating condition, he had discussed with Liu Bei which of his two sons should succeed him. The traditional choice would be his elder son, Liu Qi, yet he predicted that his wife would favour , his second son. Ultimately, he followed Liu Bei's advice and chose Liu Qi to succeed him. However, after Liu Biao's death, his wife altered his will, leaving Liu Cong with possession of much of Liu Biao's land. The weak Liu Cong immediately surrendered to Cao Cao and his elder brother, who had still retained control of one city. Due to its strategic positioning between all three warring factions during the Three Kingdoms era, many battles were fought in Jingzhou over the course of the various campaigns and battles fought between Shu Han, Cao Wei and Eastern Wu.

Family

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Liu Feng

2008-09-08T20:33:00.011-07:00

Liu Feng was the adopted son of Liu Bei, and served as a general in Liu Bei's army during the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty of China.

Life

Born with the surname of Kou , he was connected to the royal Liu family in Changsha by marriage. Liu Feng was adopted by Liu Bei while the latter was in the Jing province as he had no son at the time. Liu Bei's eventual successor, his biological son Liu Shan, was born later.

Liu Feng was sent as reinforcements alongside Zhuge Liang and Zhang Fei when Liu Bei was fighting against in the . He was in his twenties at this stage, and was described as being strong and possessing good martial skill. On pacification of Shu, he was appointed General of the Gentlemen of the Household Who Assists the Army .

In 219 AD, Liu Feng was sent from the Mian River to assist Meng Da, who Liu Bei did not fully trust, to capture Shangyong . Shen Dan , Grand Administer of Shangyong, quickly surrendered. Liu Feng and Meng Da continued to be stationed within this region after the campaign. Later in the same year, Guan Yu, while fighting Cao Wei in the Battle of Fancheng, repeatedly requested troops from Liu Feng and Meng Da to help take the fortress. They refused the requests on the basis that their area had only been recently settled, and hence troops could not be sent. Guan Yu's death at the hands of Eastern Wu afterwards resulted in Liu Bei feeling great hatred towards Liu Feng and Meng Da for their failure to send troops earlier.

At the same time, the two men also had a falling out, which played a part in Meng Da's decision to defect to Wei. The Wei emperor, Cao Pi, then ordered Meng Da to take Shangyong with Xu Huang and Xiahou Shang. Meng Da wrote Liu Feng a letter persuading him to surrender to Wei, warning him that his position was more tenuous now that Liu Bei has biological sons, and promising that the Wei government would give him the succession to the Kou family fief. Liu Feng would not hear of the offer. Shen Dan's brother Shen Yi then betrayed Liu Feng and defeated him, forcing him to return to Chengdu.

In Chengdu, Liu Bei was angered at Liu Feng's part in Guan Yu's death and failure to prevent Meng Da's defection. At the same time, the advisor Zhuge Liang was concerned that Liu Feng might not obey the state after the heir Liu Shan takes the throne, and so suggested that Liu Feng should be gotten rid of. Liu Bei then forced him to commit suicide, before which Liu Feng sighed: "I regret not to have listened to Meng Zidu !" Liu Bei wept for him afterwards.

In ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

In the historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' by Luo Guanzhong, Liu Feng was adopted after Liu Shan was born, which proved controversial, as Liu Bei already had a legitimate son at the time who was far younger than Liu Feng. Guan Yu in particular voiced his opposition, citing the family feud with Liu Biao's sons. However, Liu Feng showed his worth in battle and proved to be a valuable asset to the army.

In 219, when Guan Yu was being surrounded by Wu forces in Maicheng , Liu Feng refused to provide reinforcements partly because Meng Da reminded Liu Feng of Guan Yu's disapproval. When the general Liao Hua told Liu Bei that Guan Yu died because Liu Feng and Meng Da did not send reinforcements, Liu Bei began to resent the two and even plotted their arrest. Meng Da became afraid and defected to Cao Wei, and sent Liu Feng a message urging him to defect as well. Angrily, Liu Feng executed the messenger and went to battle Meng Da, who was now aided by Xu Huang and Xiahou Shang. As Liu Feng was out of the city, the defender Shen Dan surrendered to Wei and shot arrows at Liu Feng's men. Defeated, Liu Feng returned to Chengdu with only a few more than a hundred horsemen.

Liu Feng sought an interview with Liu Bei, but he gained scant sympathy, for in response to his petition Liu Bei bade the executioners expel Liu Feng and put him to death. Liu Bei felt some regret later when he heard of Liu Feng's treatment to the messenger who had brought Meng Da's letter inviting him to become a traitor. This, adding to the recent death of Guan Yu, made Liu Bei grieve until he fell ill.

Guo Si

2008-09-08T20:33:00.009-07:00

Guō Sì was formerly an officer under Niu Fu, who was a general serving under Dong Zhuo. After the death of his Lord, Guo Si occupied the capital of Chang'an with other former Dong Zhuo generals, Fan Chou and Li Jue, on the advice of Jia Xu. The three generals were a powerful force even defeating the mighty Lü Bu in the process, with the three generals dividing the city between them. Guo Si and Li Jue wanted to kill the young but Fan Chou and Zhang Ji put them off, eventually deciding to control the Emperor, as Dong Zhuo had done before them. The alliance between the four generals began to wear thin and Fan Chou was executed by Li Jue for letting Han Sui escape.

Later Yang Biao, a court official loyal to , came up with a plan to drive Guo Si and Li Jue apart, by making Guo Si's jealous wife Lady Qiong believe that her husband was having an affair with Li Jue's wife, and that Li Jue would kill Guo Si. She made Guo Si believe this himself by poisoning food that Li Jue had given to them and feeding it to the dog. When the dog died, Guo Si believed that Li Jue was attempting to poison him. This drove Guo Si and Li Jue to battle with each other. The situation ended up with Li Jue kidnapping the Emperor and Guo Si kidnapping the Imperial court.

After Li Jue and Guo Si made peace, the Emperor was rescued by Yang Feng, who, along with Dong Cheng and Xu Huang defeated the army of Guo Si, who returned to Li Jue to make a last-ditch effort to recapture the Emperor. Li Jue and Guo Si were defeated by the combined forces of Yang Feng and the White Wave Rebels, and then finally defeated by Cao Cao, who became the next general to seize control of the Emperor as Dong Zhuo, Li Jue and Guo Si had done before him. Li Jue and Guo Si ran off into the mountains and became bandits.

Guo Si was eventually slain by his own officer Wei Xu in 197.

Guo Xun

2008-09-08T20:33:00.007-07:00

Guo Xun , was a military officer under the Han Dynasty of China. He was an associate general of Ban Chao, as he and Ban Chao were sent to the Western Regions for a diplomatic expedition by Dou Gu. In 75, he was killed along with Chen Mu by the rebels from the state of Yanqi and Qiuci.

Han Sui

2008-09-08T20:33:00.005-07:00

Han Sui was a warrior and military leader in the waning years of the Han Dynasty and during the Three Kingdoms era of China. For most of his life he was active in Liangzhou and was involved in several rebellions against the Han Dynasty and against the warlord, Cao Cao.

Life

With the backing of the Qiang people who populated much of Liangzhou, Han Sui took up arms against the Han Dynasty during the rule of . He joined forces with others in the area, such as Bian Zhang , Beigong Yu , and Liwen Hou . The rebellion was put down by Dong Zhuo, but Han Sui maintained the support of the Qiang people and maintained his territory in Liangzhou. During another rebellion, Han Sui gained the powerful ally, Ma Teng. That rebellion, however, was put down by Huangfu Song.

Han Sui is thought to have preferred to remain somewhat behind the scenes, placing someone else in the position of leadership while holding the real power himself. It is thought that Bian Zhang was the first of these, but Han Sui killed him along with Beigong Yu. He then placed Wang Guo in power with the help of Ma Teng, whom he pledged a pact of brotherhood with. The arrangement did not last long, however, and Wang Guo was removed from power . It was at this point that Ma Teng and Han Sui declared themselves co-rulers of the Liangzhou region, now mostly autonomous due to turmoil in the Han dynasty.

Early in 192, the two of them surrendered to Dong Zhuo's government, but Dong Zhuo was assassinated by Lü Bu and Wang Yun in April, and when Li Jue succeeded in taking power of Dong Zhuo's loyal followers; Han Sui and Ma Teng allied themselves with and moved their armies toward Chang'an. Unable to score any victories in battle against Li Jue, and running short on supplies, they retreated to Liangzhou.

Not long afterward, however, Han Sui and Ma Teng's relationship soured and the two of them battled each other for control of Liangzhou. Their battle escalated to the point where both were killing each other's wives and children. Cao Cao, having achieved victory at the Battle of Guandu, sent Zhong Yao to broker a peace between the two warring sides and to place Liangzhou under Cao Cao's authority. After the terms were agreed to, Han Sui and Ma Teng would give assistance to Cao Cao in the remainder of his battles against Yuan Shao. After this, Ma Teng was forcibly summoned to and Han Sui placed Ma Teng's son Ma Chao in charge of the region.

When Cao Cao began gathering armies with the intent of invading Hanzhong, then under the rule of Zhang Lu, Han Sui and Ma Chao suspected that it was they, and not Zhang Lu who would be attacked. The two of them gathered warlords from the western regions and went to war against Cao Cao. In the course of the conflict, however, Cao Cao managed to turn Ma Chao and Han Sui against each other. Han Sui realized that there was no hope for victory with the forces divided against each other in suspicion, and retreated once again to Liangzhou. Cao Cao captured and killed Han Sui's son and grandchildren.

When Xiahou Yuan began his subjugation of the Liangzhou region, Han Sui fought against this, but was ultimately defeated and forced to retreat. He discussed the idea of retreating to , but his subordinate Cheng Gongying encouraged him to continue his fight against Cao Cao instead. At this point, he was either murdered by some of his own followers or died of illness. In either case, his head was brought to Cao Cao by Han Sui's generals as they all surrendered. He was believed to have been over 70 years old at the time of his death.

Han Sui in ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

In the historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', Han Sui is depicted as a military general under Ma Teng, when in fact he was a warlord of equal footing. Han Sui's preference to remain out of the scenes may have been a reason for this depiction.

According to the story, in the battle against the forces of Cao Cao, Han Sui leads 8 loyal generals of Ma Chao's into battle. However, due to Jia Xu's plot, Ma Chao grew suspicious of Han Sui and in anger cut off his left arm. Han Sui then defected to Cao Cao, and was given a post. Afterwards, the story has him stationed in Liangzhou with Xiahou Yuan.

Han Xian

2008-09-08T20:33:00.003-07:00

Han Xian was a loyal officer under the Han Dynasty. He and his closest friend, Yang Feng joined Yuan Shu's army. He served Yuan Shu for a duration of time, when a conspire rumours about Lu Bu killing Yuan Shu's officers, the enraged Yuan Shu led 200,000 to attack the city of Xiapi in Xuzhou. He was accompanied by Han Xian and many other officers loyal to him.

But with the help from Chen Gui, Lu Bu's trusted officer, he was tricked to think that Yuan Shu is a rebel trying to take the power from the emperor. He with his Sixth Battalion wreak havoc on the Yuan Shu's camp and managed to give Lu Bu enough time to intercept Yuan Shu's camp, forcing him to retreat. What happened to him later on was unknown.

Han Xin (Prince of Han)

2008-09-08T20:33:00.001-07:00

Han Xin is a descendant of the Han royal house and general of the Western Han Dynasty. He is known historically as Han Wangxin to not be confused with another general by the same name Han Xin and same period. Emperor Gao of Han gave Han Xin the title King of Han after the founding of the Western Han Dynasty. He was suspected of planning a rebellion by Emperor Gao, and defected to Xiongnu to save his life. He was killed in battle against Han Dynasty army in 196 BC.

Han Xin bore two sons; Han Ying , and Han Tuidang .

Han Xin

2008-09-08T20:32:00.007-07:00

Han Xin , also known as of Huaiyin , was a capable military commander who served under Liu Bang.

Early life and career

Han's father died early, and, like many Chinese at the time, he lived a childhood in destitution. It was believed that Han Xin was from a noble family, in which allowed him to carry a sword with him, which he did all the time during his younger years. It was said that once a hoodlum saw him with his sword and challenged him to use it to fight and decapitate him or crawl between his legs. Han Xin knew at that time that if he were to fight, he would be at a great disadvantage as the bully was much stronger and bigger. So instead of putting up a fight, he did as he was told. This incident, as he recalled later, was the best thing that could have happened to him because instead of letting his misfortunes handle his life, he used this event as a stepping stone toward achieving his ambitions. After a couple of years of striving, he was able to master the art of war and, not long after, became one of the greatest strategist of all time. "Restraint," he said, "must be practised as a child; denying it will cause your downfall." Once, when he was very hungry, an old lady gave him a meal. He promised to repay her for her graciousness after he became a powerful man, a suggestion she laughed off and even scorned at, she insisted that instead of just saying that he will repay her, he should do something about his life rather than not even being able to find his own meal.

During the rebellion against Qin rule, he initially served as a common soldier under Xiang Liang, then under Xiang Liang's nephew Xiang Yu , who was then the most powerful general in the war of resistance against Qin. (the head of the Great Chu . Although he showed great military abilities, he was not trusted or promoted by Xiang, so he left Xiang's forces. After Qin fell and Xiang had divided the former Qin territories among many princes, Han Xin joined Liu Bang in 206 BCE. Once, he violated an unspecified law and was about to be , when it was his turn, Han Xin said "I thought the king wanted heroes, in that case, why is he beheading heroes?". The officer in charge, Xiahou Ying who was one of Liu Bang's most trusted generals, felt that there was something special about him and spared him and, in fact, recommended him to Liu. Liu was not impressed by Han and put him in charge of the army food storage. It was during this time that Han got acquainted with Liu's chief advisor/prime minister Xiao He, who became very impressed with him.

Most of Liu's forces were from the region of Chu , and they were not happy about following Liu to his Principality of Han . As Liu Bang burnt the connecting main pathway from Han to Qin, so to divert Xiang Yu's attention elsewhere, most of his followers think that Liu Bang was already content with his achievements and do not want to take the country anymore hence they deserted. This took place around 206 BC, in which Liu Bang's most trusted advisor was rumoured to have deserted as well. Liu Bang was shocked and lost with the news, and asked people to search for him, only to find out that Xiao He returned in his own accord two days later. He asked Xiao He, "Why did you choose to desert me? Don't you have faith in me anymore?". Xiao He replied, "My lord, i did not desert you but i went after Han Xin". Liu Bang was surprised with that answer and asked, "So many generals left, you did not pursue them, what is so special about this Han Xin." Xiao He said, "Han Xin's talent is one in a million, you will not be able to find another with such ability even after thousands of years."

Apparently, after failing to be promoted by Liu despite multiple recommendations by Xiao, Han decided to desert. Xiao heard that Han had left and immediately chased after him -- this famous event is remembered as "Xiao chasing Han under the moon" -- and returned only after two days with Han — during those two days, Liu, who was heavily dependent on Xiao for administration and advice, suffered an extreme panic attack because of his absence. When Xiao, upon his return, made another recommendation for Han, Liu accepted and made Han the commander-in-chief of his armed forces.

Han's masterplan for Liu Bang

Han recommended a step-by-step plan to strangle Xiang's Principality of Western Chu into submission. Under Han's recommendation, Liu prepared for war against Xiang. Liu's first aims were the three Qins—the Principalities of , , and , which Xiang had created for three surrendered generals of Qin out of former Qin territory. In the autumn and winter of 206 BC, Liu's forces, under Han, made surprise attacks against the three Qins and easily conquered them.

For a while, under Han's plan, Liu feigned satisfaction with merely the original territories that he was promised by Xiang's predecessor Emperor Yi of Chu -- the former lands of Qin. However, that did not last long. Once Xiang was occupied with a war of resistance by the Principalities of and , Liu, by Han's planning, fostered a resistance by remnants of the Principality of and conquered the Principalities of and . Instead of following Han's plan of eventually strangling Western Chu into submission, however, Liu decided to make a full frontal assault on the Western Chu capital of Pengcheng , capturing it in summer 205 BC. Xiang, who was occupied in a war with Qi, quickly withdrew and attacked Liu's forces, nearly annihilating it. Liu barely escaped with his life.

After this near disaster, Liu decided to further implement Han's plan, which was supported by Liu's trusted military strategist Zhang Liang. He gave Han command of a large force and commissioned him to conquer the principalities to the north of Western Chu and, should that fail, force them to join Liu's coalition against Western Chu. According to this masterplan, Western Chu would be facing attack from every side and would be strangled.

Northern campaign

Han's forces left Liu's territory in the autumn of 205 BC. His first target was Western Wei, which, by that point, had again rebelled and aligned itself with Western Chu. Han devised the strategy of confusing Western Wei forces into cornering itself at the borders while he made a surprise attack on the capital of Western Wei, Anyi . Western Wei fell easily.

Han's next targets were the Principalities of Zhao and , which were in a close alliance with Chen Yu , the Prince of Dai, who served as the prime minister of Zhao. In late autumn 205 BC, Han defeated Dai forces, and then prepared to invade Zhao. In winter 205 BC, Han, at the Battle of Tao River, employed another unusual but brilliant strategy, the dangerous tactic of pitching camp with a river behind his forces. It caused his forces to have nowhere to retreat and fight to the death; they routed Zhao forces, killing Chen, and captured Zhao Xie, the Prince of Zhao. With Han's recommendation, Liu made Zhang Er, the new Prince of Zhao, Han's second-in-command and promoted Han to prime minister , thus, sharing the post with Xiao. The Principality of was intimidated into submission as well.

In autumn 204 BC, under Liu's orders, Han prepared for an invasion of Qi. Even though Liu's diplomat Li Yiji had already persuaded Qi to join Liu's coalition, Han, jealous of Li's ability to convince Qi to capitulate without a fight, decided to attack Qi anyway. It resulted in Li Yiji's death as he is boiled to death. In winter 204 BC, Han defeated Qi forces, which were caught unprepared, at Lisha . Belatedly, Xiang sent his general Long Qie to come to Qi's aid, but Han defeated the joint Qi and Western Chu forces at the Battle of Wei River, killing both Long and Tian Guang , the Prince of Qi, in battle. Han then requested Liu to make him the Prince of Qi. Reluctantly , Liu agreed.

Liu's concerns might have been partially correct. Xiang had sent his diplomat Wu She to try to persuade Han to defect from Liu and form an alliance with Xiang. Still bearing a grudge over Xiang's earlier refusal to promote him, Han refused. Han's advisor Kuai Che also tried to persuade him to become independent of Liu, reasoning with him that he has shown himself to be so brilliant a military leader that he could not be possibly trusted. Han, however, was grateful for Liu's trust in him and was unwilling to rebel. Kuai left, disappointed.

Participation in the campaign of Xiang Yu's destruction

Han Xin then continued to lead his forces to press Xiang. According to a hypothesis by David H. Li, during a lull in the fighting in the winter of 204 BC-203 BC, Han Xin developed the earliest form of Chinese Chess Xiangqi to prepare for an upcoming battle against Xiang . But to this date, it's still an arguable fact as to the origin of Xiangqi, Chinese Chess.

With the severe defeats that he suffered on multiple fronts, Xiang Yu and Liu Bang settled for a peace-treaty negotiation. Taking into account of the endless battles over a span of 8 years, which result in countless casualties of war, Xiang Yu then decided to take a step back.

With Han Xin on the side of Liu Bang and the rebel of Ying and Peng, peace is the only way out for both parties as war has torn the country apart.

In autumn 203 BC, Xiang Yu reached an agreement peace with Liu, setting the boundary of their principalities at Hong Canal , ceding the territories to the west of Hong to Liu, and returning Liu's father Liu Zhijia and wife to Liu.

Persuaded by Zhang and another strategist Chen Ping , however, Liu reneged on the peace treaty only two months after it was signed and summoned Han Xin and Peng Yue to join him. It is fear that Xiang Yu will turn his back and strike on Liu Bang once given the chance, and acting first is the better choice even if it's not the best.

However, Han Xin is rather a petty and arrogant person; Peng, who was formerly under Xiang Yu, was not much better. Neither Han Xin nor Peng arrived immediately, however, so Liu was forced to bribe them by promising to make Peng the Prince of Liang and giving large portions of Western Chu territories to Han. Both then joined the campaign. However, this caused both of them to be sore in the eyes of Liu Bang.

Under Han Xin's command, in winter 203 BC, Liu's forces surrounded Xiang's forces at the Battle of Gaixia. Xiang fought his way out but later committed suicide at Wujiang . In 202 BC, according to his promise, Liu, who would soon proclaim himself Emperor of Han Dynasty , made Han the Prince of Chu, giving him the majority of Xiang's former territory.

As Prince of Chu, Han Xin showed both gratefulness to those who had shown him kindness and graciousness to those who had previously offended him. For the old lady who had given him a meal, he gave her a gift of 240,000 Chinese ounces of gold in gratitude. For the hoodlum who had forced Han to crawl between his legs, Han commissioned him as the chief-of-police of his capital .

Demotion and death

After Liu became Emperor, he began to become suspicious of the powerful princes -- all of whom were considered a threat to the Han empire -- and found excuses to have them removed, Han Xin not exempted. In winter 202 BC, under the guise of an imperial gathering at Chenqiu , Han was summoned to a meeting and captured, stripped of his principality, and demoted to Marquess of Huaiyin with no military authority.

In 198 BC or 197 BC, Liu commissioned Chen Xi , the Marquess of Yangxia, a friend of Han, to be the commander of the northern border forces to defend the empire against Xiongnu. Once Chen reached the borders, however, he rebelled. Liu left the capital to lead an expedition force against Chen. While he was away from the capital Chang'an in 196 BC, heard rumors that Han was involved in Chen's conspiracy and was ready to raise a rebellion against her. Lü acted preemptively and had Han executed, along with close relatives of his father, his mother, and his wife.

Impact on Chinese history

Despite his tragic death, Han was regarded as one of the greatest generals in Chinese history , often used as the example by which future generations praised their own generals. His strategies were required studies for all aspiring generals.

Two commonly known Chinese idioms are derived from Han's career.
The idiom "secretly passing Chencang" refers to the surprise attack Han made against Yong and is now commonly used for "secret conduct/rendez-vous".
The idiom "Han Xin's army headcount" , usually followed by "the more the better" , refers to a conversation that Han had with Liu sometime after his demotion to the Marquess of Huaiyin. Liu was asking Han how large of a force, in Han's opinion, Liu could personally command. Han noted that Liu was capable of commanding 100,000 men. Liu then asked Han how large of a force Han himself could command. Han said, "For my army headcount, the more the better." Although Han then qualified his remarks by noting that Liu's strong point was "commanding the generals" , Han's remarks did not make Liu any more satisfied with him and may have contributed to his demise.

When Han Xin became a successful general, he returned to visit the old woman who gave him food and rewarded her. He also rewarded the bullies who forced him to crawl under their legs, claiming that "Without them, I wouldn't be who I am today."

Han is also regarded by some as the "Alexander the Great of the East": he was never defeated, and he basically took over all of China while Liu Bang's main force was bogging Xiang Yu down.

He Jin

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He Jin was the elder half-brother of Empress He, consort to of the late Eastern Han Dynasty in China. He shared power with his sister as regents in 189, following the death of Emperor Ling. In the ensuing struggle with the influential eunuch faction for power, He Jin was assassinated. His death allowed Dong Zhuo to seize military control over the capital Luoyang and take control of the imperial court. The subsequent breakdown of a central command brought forth the beginning of massive civil wars which led to the formation of the era known as the Three Kingdoms.

Life

He Jin was born into a family of butchers in , hometown of the dynastic founder . During the reign of Emperor Ling his younger half-sister entered the palace and soon became one of the emperor's favourites. In 180, she was made empress and He Jin henceforth began a speedy escalation up the bureaucratic ladder.

When the Yellow Turban Rebellion erupted in 184, He Jin was made Commander-in-Chief . He manned the imperial armory, secured strategic forts around the capital and moved quickly to crush the uprising at Luoyang led by Ma Yuanyi , a follower of the Yellow Turban leader, Zhang Jiao. The campaign was deemed a success and He Jin was enfeoffed as Marquis Shen , literally meaning the cautious marquis. After the rebellion was quelled, He Jin continued in the role of Commander-in-chief, technically with control over all the imperial armies. During this time, other members of the his family, such as his younger half-brother He Miao , were also elevated to positions of importance.

In 188, perhaps as a counterweight to the power of the He clan, Emperor Ling created the Army of the Western Garden. He ostentatiously paraded in front of the army and had himself named "Supreme General" . He also had the army placed under the command of Jian Shuo , a trusted eunuch.

When Emperor Ling died in the early months of 189 AD, and the stage was set for a showdown between He Jin and the eunuch faction. Jian Shuo plotted to assassinate He Jin but the conspiracy was discovered in advance, and He Jin had Jian Shuo arrested and executed. He also seized the troops previously under Jian Shuo's command. With the support of the Yuan clan, particularly Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu, the succession dispute was resolved in favour of , the son of Empress He, who ascended the throne in the fifth month of that year. He Jin and his sister, now the Empress Dowager, jointly took on the role of regent.

During the summer months, He Jin maneuvered, sometimes hesitantly, with Yuan Shao against the eunuch faction. The eunuchs, now without a military power base of their own, relied on the support of Empress Dowager He and He Miao. Upon the urging of Yuan Shao, He Jin summoned the frontier general Dong Zhuo to the outskirts of Luoyang, in an attempt to force the Empress Dowager to back down. Finally, in the ninth month of that year He Jin entered the palace to request the Empress Dowager to agree to the execution of the eunuchs. The conversation was overheard and relayed to Zhang Rang, the eunuch placed in charge after the death of Jian Shuo. The desperate eunuchs then had He Jin surrounded and beheaded in the palace garden.

The situation soon spun out of control. Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu, both with significant control of military forces within the capital, stormed the palace and massacred the eunuchs. The resulting power vacuum allowed Dong Zhuo to seize control of the imperial court. As soon as he held supremacy over the capital, Dong Zhuo deposed the emperor in favor of the Prince of Chenliu, who came to be known as . The deposition as well as Dong Zhuo's subsequent atrocities incurred the wrath of many. In 190, warlords from the eastern provinces formed a coalition to oust Dong Zhuo, which kicked off a series of civil wars that were to last for more than 70 years.

Huang Zu

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Huang Zu was a high-ranked naval officer and Prefect of Jiangxia under the governor of Jingzhou, Liu Biao during the later Han Dynasty and during the Three Kingdoms era of China. After the allied army that defeated Dong Zhuo split up, the former alliance polarized greatly; Yuan Shao, the leader of the alliance, feuded against his relative, Yuan Shu. Yuan Shao obtained the alliance of Liu Biao, and in turn, Yuan Shu ordered Sun Jian of Changsha to attack Liu Biao's territories.

Sun Jian led an attack on Jiangxia first, and partially due to the leadership of his young son, Sun Ce, easily defeated Huang Zu. Huang Zu fled to Xiangyang, Liu Biao's capital, for a final defense. The battle went in Sun Jian's favor until the middle of the night when Huang Zu sent a contingent of soldiers to Sun Jian's camp, and Sun Jian was slain. In the historical novel, ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', it is said that Sun Jian was slain due to a ploy by Kuai Liang and Lü Gong, two of Liu Biao's generals. In addition, Huang Zu was captured by Sun Ce, but released so that Sun Ce could retrieve his father's body in exchange. The historical accuracy of this account is unknown.

With that, the war between Yuan Shu and Yuan Shao died down, and Liu Biao went about expanding his power as Huang Zu returned to Jiangxia. Meanwhile, Sun Ce built an army in Yangzhou to the east with the intent of fulfilling his father's legacy. Liu Biao feared Sun Ce, and while Sun Ce was attacking the Prefect of Lujiang, Liu Xun, Huang Zu was sent to attack Sun Ce at Shaxian.

Sun Ce quickly defeated Liu Xun and turned his attention to his nemesis, bringing with him his cousins, Sun Ben and Sun Fu, as well as his chief lieutenant, Zhou Yu, and his trusted general, Taishi Ci. Huang Zu, on the other hand, sent his son, Huang She and the nephew of Liu Biao, Liu Pan, to do battle. Sun Ce's navy destroyed Huang Zu's in a massive victory, taking the heads of tens of thousands, including almost all of Huang Zu's family. Huang Zu fell back to Jiangxia, and Sun Ce expanded a bit of his power into the outskirts of Jingzhou during the counterattack.

In the year 200 AD, the Imperial Protector Cao Cao sent the talented scholar, Mi Heng, to Liu Biao in order to be rid of Mi Heng, who was intolerably rude. Liu Biao was insulted by Mi Heng's lack of respect, and thus he sent Mi Heng to the short-tempered Huang Zu. Huang Zu at first was eager to be in the presence of Mi Heng, but soon after being insulted, he grew tired of him and had him beheaded.

Sun Ce of Yangzhou died, and his younger brother, Sun Quan, rose to power. Sun Quan launched an attack on Xiakou, just outside of Jiangxia, during which his trusted general, Ling Cao, was slain by Gan Ning, a former pirate who had been forcibly drafted by Huang Zu some time previous. Huang Zu, however, did not care much for Gan Ning, and even after this event, he blamed his loss on Gan Ning's past. Su Fei, one of Huang Zu's subordinates, noticed that Gan Ning was unhappy, and thus he enabled Gan Ning to defect to Sun Quan. When Huang Zu mounted his attack to retake Xiakou, his generals Deng Long and Chen Jiu were quickly defeated, and his son, Huang She, was defeated by Xu Sheng of Sun Quan's forces. Huang Zu found himself facing Gan Ning, who was now one of Sun Quan's most trusted subordinates, as well as the veteran general, Cheng Pu. He was quickly captured along with Su Fei. Gan Ning beheaded him, and his body was sent along with the still living Su Fei to Sun Quan.

Su Fei would be spared by Sun Quan and hired on account of his relationship with Gan Ning. Huang Zu was survived by his son, Huang She, who had fled the battle at Xiakou after his defeat, turning to piracy and dying in obscurity. Jiangxia fell into the hands of Sun Quan, thus setting the stage for further battles of what would become known as the Three Kingdoms era.

Huangfu Song

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Huangfu Song was a general during the late Han Dynasty, best remembered for helping put down the Yellow Turban Rebellion. He was one of three imperial commanders when the rebellion broke out, along with Zhu Jun and Lu Zhi. He was known to be a modest and generous person, he gave many of his credits in taking down the rebellion to Zhu Jun and pleaded for the pardon of Lu Zhi when the latter is wrongly accused for a crime he didn't commit. Huangfu Song retired after the rebellion's end; however after the death of Dong Zhuo, he was called back to the court and appointed grand commissioner -- a post he assumed until his death. He was involved in Wang Yun's plot of getting rid of Dong Zhou, and led the Han forces to capture Dong's family members and remnants in the capital.

Huo Guang

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Huo Guang , courtesy name Zimeng was a statesman who was a rare example in of a powerful official who deposed an emperor for the good of the state rather than to usurp the throne. He was the half-brother of renowned Han general Huo Qubing.

Service under Emperor Wu

Huo's early career in Han government was not well-documented, but it is known that as of 88 BC -- near the end of 's reign, he was already a fairly highly ranked official with dual titles of ''fengche duwei'' and ''guanglu dafu'' . When Emperor Wu, near the end of his life, chose his youngest son Liu Fuling as heir, he commissioned Huo, ethnically-Xiongnu official Jin Midi, and imperial guard commander Shangguan Jie as , but with Huo effectively in command of the government, with the titles of ''dasima'' and ''dajiangjun'' . When Emperor Wu died in 87 BC, Emperor Zhao, then eight-years-old, was left in the tutelage of Huo, Jin, and Shangguan. Emperor Wu's will created the three of them as marquesses, but all three declined.

Service under Emperor Zhao

Emperor Zhao, as the youngest son of Emperor Wu, drew jealousy from his older brothers, and in his reign there were multiple conspiracies. In 86 BC, a conspiracy involving Liu Dan , the Prince of Yan and an elder son of Emperor Wu, was discovered, but the prince was not punished, presumably under Huo's decision, even though the other conspirators were executed.

In 85 BC, Huo was created the Marquess of Bowang .

In the same year, Jin, a moderating influence in the coregency, died. After Jin's death, Shangguan became increasingly jealous of Huo's powers, even though the two had been great friends, and Huo had given his daughter in marriage to Shangguan's son Shangguan An . In 84 BC, as a ploy to further strengthen his powers, Shangguan Jie gave his granddaughter , then age five, in marriage to the emperor, then age 11, and in 83 BC.

In 80 BC, the dormant conflict between Huo and Shangguan came to a head. Shangguan formed a conspiracy with Liu Dan the Prince of Yan, the Princess Eyi , and another important official Sang Hongyang to make false allegations of treason against Huo. However, Emperor Zhao, who trusted Huo, did not act on the allegations. The conspirators then planned a coup d'etat, but were discovered. Most of the conspirators, including Shangguan, were executed, and Liu Dan and the Princess of Eyi were forced to commit suicide.

The Prince He Incident and the installation of Emperor Xuan

In 74 BC, Emperor Zhao died at age 21 without issue -- and therefore without an heir. Even though Emperor Zhao had living older brothers, Huo considered them incompetent and unfit for the throne. After some investigation, he settled on making Liu He, Emperor Zhao's nephew and the the new emperor. Once the Prince of Changyi was installed as the emperor, however, he began to spend incessantly and otherwise act inappropriately during the period of mourning for Emperor Zhao.

In response, Huo decided to depose the new emperor -- then an unprecedented action in Chinese history. Under an edict issued by Empress Dowager Shangguan -- Huo's granddaughter -- Prince He was deposed after just 28 days as emperor and exiled to his old principality of Changyi, but without a princely title.

There was no imperial heir in sight who fit Huo's standard of a diligent and skilled emperor. At the suggestion of another senior official Bing Ji , Huo made a great-grandson of Emperor Wu , Liu Bingyi emperor. 27 days after Prince He was deposed, Liu Bingyi, who then was a commoner with no titles, became emperor .

Service under Emperor Xuan

In 73 BC, Huo offered to return all authority to Emperor Xuan, but the emperor declined and reaffirmed that all important matters were to be presented to Huo before Huo would present them to the emperor. The emperor also made Huo's son Huo Yu and his grandnephews Huo Yun and Huo Shan key officials in his administration. Huo Guang's sons-in-law Fan Mingyou and Deng Guanghan were made high military commanders. During the next few years, Huo and the emperor effectively shared imperial powers.

In 71 BC, Huo Guang's wife Xian , in order to make her daughter empress, poisoned Emperor Xuan's wife Empress Xu Pingjun by bribing her doctor. In 70 BC, Huo Chengjun was created empress.

Death and subsequent destruction of the Huo clan

In 68 BC, Huo Guang became ill and died. Emperor Xuan and made the nearly-unprecedent act of personally attending Huo's and built an impressive mausoleum for Huo. After Huo's death, his sons, sons-in-law, and grandnephews remained in important posts and were made marquesses. The Huo family lived luxurious lives and acted as if it were the imperial household. Emperor Xuan, unhappy about the Huos' arrogance, began to gradually strip their actual powers while formally keeping their titles impressive.

In 67 BC, Emperor Xuan made his son Liu Shi , by the deceased Empress Xu, crown prince, an act that greatly angered Lady Xian, who instructed her daughter to murder the crown prince. Allegedly, Empress Huo did make multiple attempts to do so, but failed each time. Around this time, the emperor also heard rumors that the Huos had murdered Empress Xu, which led him to further strip the Huos of actual power.

In 66 BC, Lady Xian revealed to her son and grandnephews that she had, indeed, murdered Empress Xu. In fear of what the emperor might do if he had actual proof, Lady Xian, her son, her grandnephews, and her sons-in-law formed a conspiracy to depose the emperor. The conspiracy was discovered, and the entire Huo clan was executed by Emperor Xuan -- an act that later drew heavy criticism from historians for its ungratefulness to Huo Guang.

Despite the destruction of the Huo clan, Emperor Xuan continued to honor Huo Guang posthumously. In 51 BC, when he painted the portrait of 11 great statesmen of his administration in the great hall of his palace, Huo, alone among the 11, was referred to by title and family name only, which was considered an even greater honor than the honor given to the other 10.

Impact on Chinese history

Huo was treated somewhat paradoxically by posterity. On one hand, he was greatly admired for his skillful administration of the empire and his selflessness in putting himself in great danger in deposing an unfit emperor. On the other hand, he was also criticized for his dictatorial governing style and alleged nepotism -- traits that some historians claim eventually led to his clan's destruction.

Many later conspirators in Chinese history would often claim that they were acting in the empire's best interest, like Huo, even though few actually did. Conversely, when emperors wanted to accuse officials of treason, they often euphemistically refer to them as "wanting to act like Huo Guang." Effectively, Huo set a standard of decisiveness and strength that was rarely matched and even more rarely used for the benefit of the state.

Duan Xi

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Duan Xi , was the last Protector General of the Western Regions during the Han Dynasty, served between 106-107.

Fan Chou

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Fan Chou was an officer under Dong Zhuo. After the death of Dong Zhuo, he joined with Guo Si, Li Jue and Zhang Ji and helped take Chang'an. Later, he enjoyed successes in the battles against Ma Teng and Han Sui in the west, but on one occasion he allowed Han Sui, his fellow townsman, to go unharmed and talked amiably with him. When Li Jue knew of this, he had Fan Chou executed.

Fan Kuai

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Fan Kuai was one of Han Dynasty founder 's best friends , having married the sister of Liu Bang's wife , Lü Xu .

Biography

Fan Kuai was Liu's bodyguard. He came from the same Pei region like Liu Bang and was the local butcher at their home town; one of his specialties was dog meat.

Fan become well known for his role protecting Liu during the assassination attempt in Feast at Hong Gate. When he heard that Fan Zeng, Xiang Yu's key advisor, planned to kill Liu Bang, he rushed in the tent fully dressed in armour and sword. Xiang admired Fan Kuai's bravery and gave him a pig limb and a jar of wine, Fan using his shield as a plate began to eat and drink. Xiang was further impressed. Fan then gave a lengthy speech about Liu's accomplishments and how it would be unjust for Xiang to kill him, but also implicitly confirming that Liu would not challenge Xiang's authority. Xiang did not respond but invited Fan Kuai to join the table. Fan Kuai sat next to Zhang Liang, and they planned an escape. When Liu went to the latrine, Fan accompanied him and urged him to leave; Liu felt it would be rude to take such a sudden leave, but Fan Kuai boldly said, "They are about to serve us to dinner! It is better to preserve your own life!" They therefore left in secret.

Fan Kuai was created the Marquess of Wuyang for his accomplishments after the Chu-Han Contention. After his death in 204 BC, his son Fan Kang by his wife Lü Xu inherited his title. When Lü was executed in the aftermaths of the Lü Clan Disturbance in 180 BC, Fan Kang was also killed. However, several months later, created another son of Fan's, not Lü's son, Fan Shiren to inherit the title.

In Chinese folk religion, Fan Kuai is sometimes regarded as the god of the butchers.

Feng Yi

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Feng Yi was a general of the Eastern Han Dynasty. He was famous for his modest character; he would sit under a tree while the other generals were receiving rewards for their conquests. For this particular reason, he was called ''The Big Tree General''.

Fu Jiezi

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Fu Jiezi (, born in , was responsible for the assassination of Loulan king Angui in 77 BC.

Geng Chong

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Geng Chong , born in , was a general during the Battle of Yiwulu in 73, he is a nephew of Geng Kui.

Geng Kui

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Geng Kui , born in Xianyang, Shaanxi, was a general sent by Dou Xian to defeat the unnamed , leader of the Xiongnu nomads. He achieved this in 91 A.D., shortly after the Battle of Ikh Bayan.

Gongsun Du

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Gongsun Du was a general of the Late Eastern Han Dynasty. He did not get the opportunity to really get into battle until Dong Zhuo seized power from Emperor Shao . Dong Zhuo, hoping to expand the empire, gave Gongsun Du the command to attack Korea from across the sea. Du was successful in his attack and set up the Daifang commandery and Lelang commandery among others.

Under another order of Dong Zhuo, Gongsun Du took over the Liaoning prefecture. This would be the beginning of the Gongsun power in the Northeast. Gongsun Du would go on to send Gongsun Muo and Zhang Pi to south Korea in an attempt to gain more land. In the ninth year of Jian An Gongsun Du died and his son Gongsun Kang took his position and controlled the far northeast.

Gongsun Kang

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Gongsun Kang was a general of the Kingdom of Wei during the Three Kingdoms period.

He was born to Gongsun Du, Governor of Liaodong. In 204 Kang took over the position with the territories of Liaodong, and . He was nominally subject to Cao Cao while keeping his domain semiindependent. In 207 he pleased Cao Cao in killing Yuan Shang , the last attested member of the clans of Yuan Shao and escaped the conquest of Cao Cao to Liaodong.

He smashed Yiyimo , King of Goguryeo, at its capital and forced him to move the capital. He separated the southern half from the Lelang commandery and established the Daifang commandery in 204 to make administration more efficient. With military expeditions he brought southern natives into submission.

When he died in 221, his younger brother Gongsun Gong succeeded him because Kang's children were young. However, Kang's son Gongsun Yuan took back the position in 228.

Gongsun Zan

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Gongsun Zan , styled Bogui . A native of Liaoxi , he was a warlord with fierce reputation during the late Eastern Han Dynasty era of China.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

He was commander of a cavalry force and served on the northern and eastern frontiers of the Han Dynasty empire fighting against various non-Chinese peoples. In 191, Gongsun enlisted as part of against Dong Zhuo, the warlord who had seized power in Luoyang and held the emperor hostage, but used the opportunity to enlarge his territories. In late 191, Gongsun Zan appointed the later great Shu Han general, Zhao Yun. Zhao Yun later joined another member of the attack on Dong Zhuo, Liu Bei who also served him at one point along with his comrades Guan Yu and Zhang Fei. Gongsun Zan and Liu Bei had known each other for years having studied together in their younger days. Throughout the 190s he fought a series of battles with the warlord Yuan Shao for control of north China, starting with the Battle of Jieqiao. He was defeated by Yuan in 199 in the Battle of Yijing and committed suicide by burning the pagoda he was on.

Gongsun Zan was known as the General of Baima and renowned for his brigade of elite cavalry from Baima, made up completely of horses of pure white . It seems he hit on the tactic of using all white horses in battle when he learned the barbarians he was then fighting against considered the animals sacred and would run from them instead of fighting.

Personal information

* Son
** Gongsun Xu
* Cousin
** Gongsun Yue
** Gongsun Fan

Ban Chao

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Ban Chao , born in Xianyang, Shaanxi, was a Chinese general and cavalry commander in charge of the administration of the "Western Regions" during the Eastern Han dynasty. He repelled the Xiongnu and secured Chinese control on the Tarim Basin region, and led a military expedition to the heart of Central Asia. He fought for 31 years.

Control of the Tarim Basin

Ban Chao, like his predecessors Huo Qubing and Wei Qing from the earlier-half of the Han Dynasty before him, is said to have been extremely effective at expelling the Xiongnu from the Tarim Basin, and at bringing the various people of the Western Regions under Chinese rule during the time of the Emperor . This helped secure and flourish the trade routes we have come to know nowadays as the Silk Road. He was generally outnumbered, but skillfully played on their divisions. The kingdoms of Loulan, Khotan and Kashgar came under Chinese rule.

Ban Chao was recalled to Luoyang, but then sent again to the Western Region area four years later, during the reign of the new emperor . He obtained the military help of the Kushan Empire in 84 in repelling the Sogdians who were trying to support the rebellion of the king of Kashgar, and the next year in his attack on Turpan, in the eastern Tarim Basin. Ban Chao ultimately brought the whole of the Tarim Basin under Chinese control.

In recognition for their support to the Chinese, the Kushans requested, but were denied, a princess, even after they had sent presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in 90 with a force of 70,000, but, exhausted by the expedition, were finally defeated by the smaller Chinese force. The Yuezhi retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire from then on, until they managed to set their own king in Kashgar in 116.

Expedition to the doorstep of Europe

Ban Chao became in 91, and was based at Kucha. In 97, Ban Chao crossed the Tian Shan and mountains with an army of 70,000 men comprised entirely of light cavalry and mounted infantry in a campaign against the Xiongnu/Huns, who were harassing the trade routes now known as the Silk Road. The Han general made an alliance with the Parthian king and established his base on shores of the Caspian Sea and at Antiochia Margiana , the eastern outpost of the Parthian Kingdom. From here he reportedly sent an envoy named Gan Ying to Daqin . Gan Ying left the first recorded Chinese account of Europe, although he actually only reached the Black Sea, after being convinced to turn back by Parthian traders who had no interest in promoting direct Han and Roman contacts.

The Han Chinese army's forts established under the alliance with the Parthians was a distance of only a few days march to the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon, itself only about 32 miles from present-day Baghdad, and the Han forces held the region for several years. In 116, the Roman Emperor Trajan advanced into Parthia to Ctesiphon and came within one day's march of the Chinese border garrisons, but direct contacts apparently never took place. However, J. Innes Miller speculates that Trajan's Parthian campaigns "should be interpreted to some extent in the light" of these Chinese actions. Some time after this, the first of several Roman embassies to China is recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in 166, and a second one in 284.

Ban Chao was created the Marquess of Dingyuan for his services to the Empire and returned to the capital Luoyang at the age of 70 years old, and before long died there in 102. Following his death, the power of the Xiongnu in the Western Territories increased again, and subsequent Chinese emperors were never to reach so far to the west.

According to a Chinese saying Ban Chao was one of the most prominent actors in the expansion of China to the west, on a level with Zhang Qian:
:''In the time of the Western Han there was Zhang Qian,''
:''In the Eastern Han there was Ban Chao.''

A family of historians

Ban Chao also belonged to a family of historians. His father was Ban Biao who started the ''History of the Western Han Dynasty'' in 36, which was completed by his son Ban Gu and his daughter Ban Zhao. Ban Chao was probably the key source for the cultural and socio-economic data on the Western Regions contained in the ''Hanshu''.

Ban Chao's son Ban Yong participated in military campaigns with his father and continued to have a central military role in the Tarim Basin into the 120s.

Ban Chao's family:

* Ban Biao
** Ban Gu
** Ban Chao
** Ban Zhao

Famous Quotes

* "If you don't enter the tiger's den, how can you catch the tiger's cub?"
* "Clear water can not harbor big fish, clean politics can not foster harmony among the general public"

Ban Chao in idioms

: ''See'' four-character idiom:

* "Throw away your and join the military!" based on his words "A brave man has no other plan but to follow Fu and Zhang Qian's footsteps and do something and become somebody in a foreign land. How can I waste my life on writing? in ''Hou Hanshu''.
* "Clear water harbors no fish."

Ban Chao of today

is a frigate built in Taiwan based on the -design. It is currently in service for the Republic of China Navy.

Chen Mu

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Chen Mu , was a general during Han Dynasty, and served the first Protector General of the Western Regions under Eastern Han between 74-75. During the service, he was killed by the rebels from the state of Yanqi and Qiuci in 75.

Chen Tang

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Chen Tang , born in , Shandong, was famous for his battle at in 36 BC, and quote 夫胡兵五而当汉兵一 "a single soldier of Han is equivalent to five Central Asian soldiers".

Another famous quote "明犯强汉者，虽远必诛" from Chen Tang: "No matter how far away, who dares to offend mighty Han will be put to death".

Deng Yu

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Deng Yu , courtesy name Zhonghua , was a Han Dynasty general and statesman who was a major contributor to 's campaign to reestablish the Han Dynasty. He was well-known in history for his accomplishments at a young age, but his main strengths might have been his abilities to find the right people for the right responsibilities, rather than his own personal military might.

Initial following of Liu Xiu

Deng first met Liu Xiu when both were visiting and studying in the Xin Dynasty capital of Chang'an, perhaps in 12. He befriended Liu as both were from Nanyang Commandery . Later, both went back home, and Liu Xiu would eventually be involved in his brother Liu Yan's rebellion against Xin in 22. Deng apparently was not involved in any revolutionary activities against Xin at this point.

After Xin fell to 's rebel armies in 23, Liu Xiu was commissioned by Emperor Gengshi to pacify the territory north of the Yellow River. Deng, having heard this, and believing from his earlier experience with Liu Xiu that Liu Xiu was a capable man who could do great things, left home and chased Liu Xiu, finally catching him at Yecheng . When Liu Xiu saw Deng, he asked Deng whether he was looking for a commission. Deng gave a famous reply:

:''What I want is that your power and grace be extended to all territory under the heaven, and that I may contribute in a minor but sufficient way, so that my name may be recorded in history.''

Liu was impressed, and requested Deng to remain and give him suggestions. Deng analyzed the situation and suggested to him that Emperor Gengshi's administration would eventually fall, and that he should be ready to establish great things. Liu agreed.

Deng was later part of Liu Xiu's train while fleeing the attacks of the pretender Wang Lang in 23-24, and contributed to Liu's eventual defeat of Wang. After Wang's defeat, it was at Deng's suggestion that Liu, who had decided to break away from Emperor Gengshi by that point, entrusted his base of the He'nei region to Kou Xun -- a key suggestion since Kou was an able administrator who turned He'nei into a wealthy territory capable of supplying Liu's subsequent campaigns.

Campaign in the west

As Liu began to increase his influence in the east, he was pondering whom to entrust with an army to head west to try to take over territories while Emperor Gengshi's forces battled the Chimei. In 24, he commissioned Deng with a relatively small force of 20,000. Deng was quickly able to capture the Hedong region for Liu. After Liu declared himself emperor in 25, he gave Deng the title of prime minister and created him the Marquess of Zhan -- the same title as Xiao He, his ancestor 's famed prime minister -- implicitly comparing Deng to Xiao. Deng, at age 23, was the youngest prime minister in Han history.

As Chimei forces destroyed Emperor Gengshi's later that year, forcing Emperor Gengshi's surrender, Deng decided to let the militarily-mighty but administrativelly-inept Chimei generals wear themselves out, and chose not to engage them directly, but rather made raids to harass them and meanwhile pacified the modern northern Shaanxi region by treating the people with kindness. Although he became popular among the people who were tired and fearful of Chimei's pillages, Emperor Guangwu was not pleased with his failure to engage the Chimei. Deng, reluctantly, engaged the Chimei in a number of battles but had limited success, perhaps showing that his reluctance to engage the Chimei was correct. Eventually, as he predicted, the Chimei wore out their welcome in the Guanzhong region after they pillaged and destroyed wherever they went, and they were forced to retreat east. Forces led by Emperor Guangwu himself was able to corner the Chimei and force their surrender in 27.

Role in Emperor Guangwu's administration

After the surrender of the Chimei, Emperor Guangwu, seeing that Deng was more useful as a prime minister who governs and a strategist than a general himself, summoned Deng back to the capital to be the head of his administration.

In 37, after Emperor Guangwu had largely reunified the entire empire, he created Deng the Marquess of Gaomi, with a large -- four counties. Deng, like a number of other generals, realizing that Emperor Guangwu wanted to preserve their status by not giving them major duties, resigned his prime minister post. He would remain a trusted advisor to Emperor Guangwu, however, throughout Emperor Guangwu's reign.

After Emperor Guangwu died in 57, Deng, being recognized as chief among those who had contributed to Emperor Guangwu's reestablishment of Han Dynasty, was given the honorary post of imperial professor by Emperor Guangwu's son .

Deng himself died in 58. In 60, when Emperor Ming honored those who had served his father well by painting their portraits on a palace tower, Deng's portrait was placed in the first position. His granddaughter would eventually become empress to .

Ding Yuan

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Ding Yuan was a regional governor and minor warlord during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. In 189, both he and Dong Zhuo were summoned into the capital Luoyang with their individual troops to assist in the struggle against the powerful eunuch faction. Ding Yuan, however, was eventually killed by his trusted aide Lü Bu, who had been bought over by Dong Zhuo.

Life

According to the ''Records of Heroes'' by Wang Can, Ding Yuan was born in a poor family. Uncouth but brave, he was adept in horse riding and archery. During his early career as a county magistrate, he never turned away from his responsibility no matter the adversity or risk. He always pitched himself in front during confrontations with fugitive criminals and bandits. He was eventually promoted to governor of when he met Lü Bu. The martial prowess of the young warrior greatly impressed Ding Yuan, who made him Chief Secretary and kept him close at side.

In 189, died. The general-in-chief He Jin then summoned Ding Yuan into the capital Luoyang with his regional troops to assist in the power struggle against the eunuch faction. Before Ding Yuan could arrive, however, the eunuchs assassinated He Jin. Dong Zhuo, a warlord from who was also summoned by He Jin, arrived in Luoyang ahead of Ding Yuan and defeated the eunuchs, grasping military control of the capital. After Ding Yuan arrived, Dong Zhuo managed to buy over Lü Bu, who killed Ding Yuan and presented the latter's head to Dong Zhuo.

Ding Yuan in ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', a 14th century historical novel by Luo Guanzhong, was a romanticization of the events that occurred before and during the Three Kingdoms era. In Chapter 3, Ding Yuan was said to be regarded as a rival by Dong Zhuo as he opposed the latter's plan to depose the young emperor in favor of . However, Dong Zhuo refrained from killing Ding Yuan on the spot as the mighty warrior Lü Bu, who in the novel was the foster son of Ding Yuan, was standing closely by.

Li Su, a general under Dong Zhuo who was from the same county as Lü Bu, then volunteered to persuade his fellow townsman to defect. Bringing along a famous steed named Red Hare and other luscious gifts, he came to see Lü Bu, who was encamped outside the city. Lured by the presents and Li Su's words, Lü Bu was easily convinced to betray his master. That very night, Lü Bu carried a sword into the tent of Ding Yuan, who was reading under the candlelight. With a stroke of his sword Lü Bu severed Ding Yuan's head, which he brought to Dong Zhuo the next morning.

Dong Cheng

2008-09-08T20:27:00.009-07:00

Dong Cheng was a government official during the late Eastern Han/Three Kingdoms era of China. He was allegedly given the task to assassinate Cao Cao by . Dong Cheng gathered people he trusted, including Liu Bei. The assassination plans were discovered by Cao Cao and Dong Cheng was executed.

Dong Xian

2008-09-08T20:27:00.007-07:00

Dong Xian was a Han Dynasty politician who quickly rose from obscurity as a minor official to being the most powerful official in the imperial administration of within a span of a few years.

Most scholars agree that Dong's quick career advancement came mostly because of his personal relationship with Emperor Ai, likely a homosexual one, rather than a demonstration of abilities. Both men were married, but Emperor Ai, at least, was childless.

A largely derogatory idiomatic term for homosexuality in is ''duanxiu zhi pi'' , derived from an episode involving Dong and Emperor Ai. They often slept together on the same bed, which in ancient China was not necessarily an indication of a sexual relationship. One afternoon, after Emperor Ai woke up from a nap, Dong was still sleeping, and Emperor Ai's sleeve was stuck under Dong's head. Rather than waking Dong up, Emperor Ai cut off his sleeve to allow Dong to continue to sleep without disturbance.

Early career

It is unclear when Dong became a court official, but it is known that early in Emperor Ai's reign , Dong was a minor imperial secretary , and he was a colleague of the later-posthumously famous Confucian scholar .

By 4 BC, at the age of 19, he was an imperial attendant and the director of imperial equine operations , ''fuma duwei''. His relationship with Emperor Ai would allow him to suddenly increase his power and prestige.

Relationship with Emperor Ai and quick ascension to great power

Circa 4 BC, Dong had by this point become a favorite of Emperor Ai's. It was described that whenever Emperor Ai visited places outside the palace, Dong would accompany him, and once Emperor Ai returned to the palace, he would attend to the emperor. Emperor Ai rewarded him with large sums of money. Dong's wife was given unprecedented permission to enter and leave the palace as she wished, and she set up a residence with Dong inside the palace. Emperor Ai also created Dong's sister an imperial consort , ranked just below his wife Empress Fu. The three members of the Dong family thereby spent day and night near the emperor. Dong's father Dong Gong was made the minister of palace supplies and created an acting marquess .

Emperor Ai further ordered the imperial architect to build a luxurious residence for Dong just outside the main imperial palace, Weiyang Palace. The residence was described to be so spacious that it was like an imperial palace. Emperor Ai also gave Dong the best weapons and the most precious jewels from the imperial treasury - so much so that what Dong used was even more precious than what Emperor Ai personally used. Further, imperial burial tools were pre-awarded to Dong in preparation for his eventual burial, and Dong's future tomb was built right next to Emperor Ai's own.

In 3 BC, Emperor Ai became intent on creating Dong a marquess, but could find no good excuse to do it. At the suggestion of a member of his grandmother's clan, Fu Jia , a plan was hatched. In 4 BC, informants Xifu Gong and Sun Chong had, through the eunuch Song Hong , reported that Liu Yun , the Prince of Dongping, was using witchcraft; as a result, Prince Yun was demoted to commoner status and committed suicide. Emperor Ai announced that the plot was reported through Dong, not Song, and then created Dong, Xifu, and Sun acting marquesses. Later that year, over Prime Minister Wang Jia's objection, Emperor Ai created the three of them marquesses.

A good number of officials tried to curb Dong's power by begging Emperor Ai not to overly reward him, and they suffered for it. There is no evidence indicating that Dong was behind the punishment of those officials; rather, it appears that Emperor Ai was personally offended that these officials attacked his lover and therefore punished them for it. The officials include:

* Zheng Chong , the palace secretary general, who was arrested and who died while in prison in 3 BC; the governor of the capital province, Sun Bao , who tried to get Zheng released, was himself relieved of his post
* Wujiang Long , the security chief for the capital Chang'an, who refused to transfer the weapons to Dong, who was demoted to the post of security chief for the Commandery of Pei
* Wang Jia , the prime minister, who several times tried to prevent Dong from being created a marquess and being promoted; he was imprisoned and committed suicide within the prison in 2 BC; Emperor Ai's own uncle Ding Ming , the commander of the armed forces, who was friendly with Wang and grieved for his death, was relieved of his post and returned to his

However, Wang Hong , an imperial attendant and grandnephew of , the step-grandmother of Emperor Ai, who also made similar requests of Emperor Ai, was not punished but was also not listened to.

In late 2 BC, after Ding's successor Wei Shang died of an illness, Emperor Ai made Dong, at the age of 22, the commander of the armed forces - one of the Three Excellencies, along with the prime minister and the prime examiner - and the security chief for the capital. The edict read:

:''Heaven gave you to be the helper for Han Dynasty. I know your faithfulness, and I hope that you can guide the great affairs of the empire and follow what is good.''

The edict's wording followed that of the alleged wording of the mystical Emperor Yao, when he passed his throne to Emperor Shun, and greatly surprised and shocked all who read it.

Despite his ascension to such great post, Dong continued to accompany Emperor Ai at all times in the palace, not handling the important matters that his post should have required him to handle. At the same time, his father Dong Gong was promoted to an honorary post while his younger brother Dong Kuanxin was made the director of imperial equine operations, succeeding Dong Xian. Many members of the Dong clan were made imperial attendants or deputy ministers.

Death

In summer 1 BC, Emperor Ai suddenly died without an heir. Dong Xian, as the commander of the armed forces, was the most powerful official at court, but he was paralyzed by this sudden event. Grand Empress Dowager Wang took decisive action; she proceeded to Weiyang Palace and seized the imperial seal. She then summoned Dong, who was caught by surprise, and was unable to act. Grand Empress Dowager Wang summoned her nephew Wang Mang back to the palace as well and transferred the command of the imperial guard from Dong to Wang.

Wang Mang then ordered the palace secretary to issue an article of impeachment against Dong, accusing Dong of failing to attend to Emperor Ai when he was ill. Dong was prohibited from entering the palace, and was relieved of his post the next day. That night, he and his wife committed suicide, and were buried quickly. Wang Mang disinterred him to make sure that he was in fact dead, and then had him reburied within a prison. The entire Dong clan was exiled to Hepu and their assets forfeited to the imperial treasury.

Dong Zhuo

2008-09-08T20:27:00.005-07:00

Dong Zhuo was a powerful warlord during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. He seized control of Luoyang in 189 after the capital fell into chaos following the death of and a bloody clash between the powerful eunuch faction and the court officials. Dong Zhuo subsequently deposed the rightful heir to the throne and instated the puppet .

However, Dong Zhuo's tyrannical and cruel ways angered many, and warlords around the country formed a coalition against him, forcing him to move the capital west to Chang'an. Dong Zhuo was eventually assassinated by his adoptive son Lü Bu as part of a plot by Interior Minister, Wang Yun.

Life

Early life

Born in Lintao of the Longxi Commandery , Dong Zhuo was said to be full of chivalry in his youth. Travelling widely in the Qiang region, he made friends with many a gallant man. Being both resourceful and physically adept, Dong Zhuo later participated in the campaign against Qiang rebels in . For his excellent performance Dong Zhuo was rewarded with 9,000 rolls of fine silk, all of which he distributed to his colleagues and subordinates.

Having been promoted a few times subsequently, Dong Zhuo was sent to quell the Yellow Turban Rebellion in the early 180s but was defeated and demoted. When Han Sui rebelled in , Dong Zhuo was reinstated as Knight General and sent to put down the rebellion.

During a battle against the Qiang tribes, who allied themselves with Han Sui, Dong Zhuo's force was outnumbered with a river cutting off its retreat. To prevent a rout, Dong Zhuo had his troops dam up the river, pretending to fish in the reservoir formed. Then he ordered his men to cross the dried up lower stream and break the dam. All pursuits were effectively thwarted by the now replaced river.

Dong Zhuo was henceforth promoted to General of the Front and Bingzhou Governor. However, unwilling to leave the troops and subjects loyal to him in Liangzhou, Dong Zhuo declined the new post.

Rise to power

Following the death of Emperor Ling in 189, Supreme General He Jin summoned Dong Zhuo to lead his troops into Luoyang to aid his plot to eliminate the powerful eunuch faction. Before Dong Zhuo arrived, however, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuchs and the capital fell into chaos. The eunuchs then kidnapped and headed out of the capital. They were intercepted by Dong Zhuo, who brought the emperor back to the palace.

During this time, He Jin's half brother, General of Chariots and Cavalry He Miao , was suspected of colluding with the eunuchs and killed by his own subjects. The former troops of He Jin and He Miao, having no leader, then came under Dong Zhuo's command. Meanwhile, Dong Zhuo also enticed Lü Bu to slay his own adopted father Ding Yuan, another warlord summoned to Luoyang by the late He Jin, and defect. Thus Dong Zhuo grasped control of all troops in the capital.

In 190, Dong Zhuo deposed the young emperor and placed in the throne the puppet Emperor Xian. He also made himself the Prime Minister and henceforth began to show his tyrannical ways. He was given special dispensation to carry his sword to court, which was forbidden to all others. This dispensation had not been given to any Han official since Xiao He. The dispensation also permitted him to enter court without taking his shoes off. The '''' recorded an incident where Dong Zhuo led his troops to Yangcheng and ordered them to cut off the heads of all male inhabitants. The soldiers then ransacked the city and brought back the women, oxen and valuables, claiming to have defeated a rebel force. Dong Zhuo himself also slept with palace maids and even princesses.

Move to Chang'an

In the same year, warlords around the country formed . Dong Zhuo then moved the capital west to the strategically sound Chang'an. Before he did so, however, he had the tombs of late emperors excavated and the treasures within robbed. He then burned down the palace.

After moving to Chang'an, Dong Zhuo made his younger brother Dong Min the General of the Left and all his kin court officials. He also built a castle at the county of Mei, 260 '''' from Chang'an. In the castle he stored thirty years worth of food and threw banquets, during which savage tortures would be performed on captured rebels. Against his opposition Dong Zhuo would also pass cruel punishments. Within two years, those wrongly accused and executed numbered in the thousands.

Dong Zhuo also ordered bronze statues and bells be melted down and recast into coins, which were flooded into the market. Serious inflation occurred as a result, and the coin currency soon became useless.

Downfall and More Turmoil

Because of his provocative actions and reckless behavior, Dong Zhuo had aroused the anger of many and the risk of assassination was high. For his personal safety, Dong Zhuo depended heavily on Lü Bu, whom he had adopted as a son. The son shadowed the father almost all the time.

However, in his frequent bouts of temper Dong Zhuo would hurl a halberd at Lü Bu. Although the agile Lü Bu could always duck the throw, and Dong Zhuo's fury would dissipate quickly, Lü Bu nonetheless bore a furtive displeasure against his adoptive father. Furthermore, being entrusted to guard the residence of Dong Zhuo, Lü Bu held an amorous affair with one of Dong Zhuo's chambermaids. For this he was constantly in fear of being discovered.

In 192, encouraged by Interior Minister Wang Yun, Lü Bu finally made up his mind to murder Dong Zhuo. Bringing along a dozen trusted men, including the slender Cavalry Captain Li Su, Lü Bu greeted Dong Zhuo at the palace gate. When Li Su stepped up and stabbed Dong Zhuo, the warlord cried out for his son. But saying "This is an imperial order," Lü Bu delivered the fatal blow.

Dong Zhuo's corpse was then left in the streets, while anyone who went forward to collect the body was slain. The official guarding the corpse lit a wick in Dong Zhuo's navel and it burned for days on the fats of the corpse. Dong Zhuo's relatives were also executed subsequently, including Dong Min.

Shortly after his death, many loyalists of Dong Zhuo, such as Li Ru, Li Jue, Fan Chou and others escaped, believing that their loyalty would be considered treason. Hearing of their appeal for pardon, Wang Yun, who took control of the government, said, "Of all the people who should be forgiven, these are the exceptions". Feeling outraged, they waged war with Wang Yun, only to have the Imperial Army and Lü Bu foiling them, after many defeats, the loyalists decided to change their tactics in battle.

In one battle, Li Jue and Fan Chou were diversions to subdue Lü Bu into fighting, and then all the other loyalists would take over the castle. The plan worked, as Lü Bu retreated soon after the castle was breached.

Soon power turned for the loyalists, but they all were in a power struggle, just like the courts before them. Soon, all of China was in a major civil war for ascension to the throne.

Dong Zhuo in Romance of the Three Kingdoms

''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', a 14th century historical novel by Luo Guanzhong, was a romanticization of the events that occurred before and during the Three Kingdoms era. Because the real-life Dong Zhuo was already much of a cruel and treacherous character, the novel probably could do little more to accentuate that treachery and cruelty. It did, however, on two occasions deviate from the history.

Dong Zhuo and the three brothers

Dong Zhuo first appeared as early as late in Chapter 1. Being sent to quell the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Dong Zhuo was defeated by the rebel leader Zhang Jiao and the battle was turning into a rout.

The three newly sworn brothers, Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, happened to be nearby. They then led their forces out to Dong Zhuo's rescue. Suddenly met with this new opposition, the rebels were swept off their feet and had to retreat.

After returning to camp, Dong Zhuo asked the three brothers what offices they currently held. And they replied that they held none. Dong Zhuo harrumphed and then ignored them. This angered Zhang Fei so much that he grabbed his sword and wanted to kill Dong Zhuo. He was however stopped by his two brothers, who suggested taking their service elsewhere. Thus was Dong Zhuo's life spared and the three brothers went their own way.

Dong Zhuo and Diao Chan

Perhaps the most popular story about Dong Zhuo was the fictional love triangle involving Dong Zhuo, Lü Bu and Diaochan, which eventually led to the death of Dong Zhuo in the hands of his own adoptive son, Lü Bu.

After Dong Zhuo moved the capital to the more strategically sound Chang'an, Interior Minister Wang Yun started to contemplate a plot to assassinate the tyrant by using the petite Diaochan, a song girl who was brought up in his household but whom he had been treating like his own daughter, to plant the seed of dissension between Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu.

Inviting Lü Bu over one night, Wang Yun asked Diaochan to serve wine to the guest. Lü Bu was immediately seized by the girl's beauty. Well aware of this, Wang Yun then promised to marry Diaochan to the mighty warrior.

A few days later, however, Wang Yun laid a feast for Dong Zhuo and repeated the feat. Like Lü Bu, Dong Zhuo could not lift his eyes off Diaochan, who also displayed her prowess in song and dance. Dong Zhuo then brought Diaochan home and made her his concubine.

When Lü Bu heard about this early the next morning, he headed for Dong Zhuo's bedroom and peeped in through the window. There he saw Diaochan sitting up grooming her hair while Dong Zhuo was still asleep. Aware of Lü Bu's presence, Diaochan put up a sorrowful expression and pretended to wipe tears off her eyes with a handkerchief.

A similar incident recurred about a month later, but this time Dong Zhuo woke up in time to see Lü Bu staring fixedly at Diaochan. Lü Bu was then thrown out and forbidden to come into the house.

Then one day, while Dong Zhuo was holding a conversation with Emperor Xian, Lü Bu stole to his foster father's residence and met with Diaochan in the Fengyi Pavilion . Weeping, Diaochan pled with Lü Bu to rescue her from Dong Zhuo. Placing his halberd aside, Lü Bu held Diaochan in his arms and comforted her with words.

Right then, Dong Zhuo returned to find the duo in the pavilion. The startled Lü Bu turned to flee. Dong Zhuo grabbed the halberd and gave chase. Being too slow, Dong Zhuo could not catch up with the agile Lü Bu. He then hurled the halberd at Lü Bu but the latter fended it off and got away.

After the incident, Lü Bu became increasingly displeased with Dong Zhuo. The displeasure was further inflamed by Wang Yun, who suggested subtly that Lü Bu kill Dong Zhuo. Lü Bu was eventually persuaded.

The conspirators sent Li Su to fetch Dong Zhuo from his castle in the county of Mei under the pretense that the emperor intended to abdicate the throne to the warlord. The overjoyed Dong Zhuo then came to the palace gate, where his troops were barred from entering. As Dong Zhuo's carriage neared the palace building, soldiers loyal to Wang Yun escorted Dong Zhuo to the trap they set. Then suddenly a general stabbed Dong Zhuo.

Injured only in the arms, Dong Zhuo then cried out for Lü Bu to save him. Lü Bu walked over and impaled Dong Zhuo's throat with his halberd, proclaiming, "I have an imperial decree to slay the rebel!"

Modern references

*Dong Zhuo is a playable character in Koei's video game series, ''Dynasty Warriors'' and ''Warriors Orochi''. He is portrayed as a ruthless tyrant who has usurped the authority of the Han.

*The character of the anime short series, ''Ikki Tousen'', is based roughly on Dong Zhuo.

Dou Gu

2008-09-08T20:27:00.003-07:00

Dou Gu , born in , was a general fought in the Battle of Yiwulu in 73. Shortly after the battle, Dou Gu sent of two of his generals Ban Chao and Guo Xun to the Western Regions for a diplomatic expedition.

Dou Xian

2008-09-08T20:27:00.001-07:00

Dou Xian was a prominent general and statesman of the Eastern Han Dynasty. A native of modern-day Xianyang, Shaanxi Province, he was part of the powerful Dou clan which dominated court politics during his tenure. However, his father Dou Xun fell into disgrace and died in 70, leaving Dou Xian an orphan. His fortunes were greatly enhanced, though, when his two sisters entered the imperial harem in 77. In the following year, the eldest of these two sisters became , the wife of Emperor Zhang of Han, and lasted briefly as empress dowager and regent during the early reign of Emperor He of Han.

In AD 90, Dou Xian was the Han general responsible for the collapse of the Northern Xiongnu, the greatest northern nomadic enemy of the Han Dynasty. However, a vacuum of power was made for the Xianbei people to occupy Xiongnu lands and incorporate Xiongnu into their forces, allowing the Xianbei to perpetuate their rule over the northern steppe for centuries.

Hou Andu

2008-09-08T20:26:00.006-07:00

Hou Andu , courtesy name Chengshi , was a Chen Dynasty general, whose military accomplishments under and made him one of the most powerful individuals in the state, but whose arrogance and rudeness raised suspicions from Emperor Wen, and Emperor Wen arrested him and forced him to commit suicide.

During Liang Dynasty

Hou Andu came from a prominent clan of Shixing Commandery . In his youth, he was known for being skilled at calligraphy, playing the '''', riding, and archery. When the rebel general Hou Jing attacked the capital Jiankang and captured it in 549, the local general Chen Baxian decided to try to raise an army to try to assist in recovering Jiankang. Hou Andu gathered 3,000 men and joined Chen's army. He, as one of Chen's three key lieutenants subsequently assisted Chen in his campaigns against local warlords Cai Luyang and Li Qianshi , and, when Chen served as the lieutenant of 's general Wang Sengbian in 552 in defeating Hou Jing and recapturing Jiankang with contribution from Hou Andu, Emperor Yuan awarded Hou Andu with a general title and created him as the Viscount of Fuchuan.

In 554, Western Wei attacked Emperor Yuan's new capital Jiangling , capturing it, and Western Wei forces put Emperor Yuan to death around the new year 555. Initially, Wang and Chen prepared to declare Emperor Yuan's only surviving son the Prince of Jin'an emperor, but after Wang's forces suffered defeats by Northern Qi forces, Wang accepted the proposal by Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi to declare Emperor Yuan's cousin Xiao Yuanming emperor. Chen, then stationed at Jingkou , was displeased with Xiao Yuanming's elevation and, in fall 555, upon hearing rumors that Northern Qi may attack, decided to overthrow Wang and Xiao Yuanming. In doing so, he consulted only with Hou, Zhou, and Xu Du , and then launched a surprise attack on Jiankang under the guise that he was only making troop movements to defend against a possible Northern Qi attack. However, as the army departed, Chen hesitated, and only followed the army after Hou chased him down and told him, "Today, we are all prepared to be bandits. Why hesitate? Do you think that your hesitation can save you from decapitation?" Chen thereafter resolved to launch the attack, and Wang was caught by surprise when Hou entered his headquarters at the fortress of Shitou, near Jiankang. Wang was unable to resist, and Hou captured him. Chen put Wang to death and deposed Xiao Yuanming, declaring Xiao Fangzhi emperor . Subsequently, when Chen was away from Jiankang to attack Wang's son-in-law Du Kan , Hou and Du Leng were left in charge of the capital, and Hou fended the capital against a surprise attack by the generals Xu Sihui and Ren Yue , who were loyal to Wang. When Northern Qi sent forces to aid Xu and Ren, Chen returned to the capital and commissioned Hou to defend against Northern Qi attacks. After Hou repelled Northern Qi forces, the armies stalemated, and around the new year 556, Northern Qi forces sued for peace.

Meanwhile, Hou Tian , the governor of Jiang Province also resisted Chen, and Chen sent Hou Andu and Zhou against Hou Tian. However, as they were departing Jiankang, Northern Qi prepared another attack in spring 556, and they had to be diverted to defend against Northern Qi again. Hou Andu was effective in resisting Northern Qi attacks. Northern Qi forces subsequently reached Jiankang's vicinity, and Hou Andu, seeing the situation as critical, fought against the wind and was able to fight off Northern Qi forces. Eventually, when Northern Qi forces ran out of food supplies, Chen's armies crushed them. For Hou Andu's contributions, Chen initially promoted him to marquess, and then further created him the Duke of Xijiang.

In spring 557, when Xiao Bo the Marquess of Qujiang and governor of Guang Province declared an uprising against the Chen-led imperial administration, Chen initially sent only Zhou to fight Xiao Bo's forces. After Zhou crushed and captured Xiao Bo's general Ouyang Wei , however, Xiao Bo's own generals assassinated him, throwing Guang Province into a state of confusion. Chen, because Ouyang was an old friend of his, made Ouyang the governor of Guang Province and sent Hou south to assist Zhou to pacify the region. They defeated Xiao Bo's generals Xiao Zi and Yu Xiaoqing , and soon pacified the region.

Meanwhile, also resisting Chen was the general Wang Lin, who controlled the modern Hunan and part of modern Hubei region. In summer 557, Chen sent Hou and Zhou to attack Wang.

During Emperor Wu's reign

However, before Hou Andu and Zhou Wenyu could engage Wang Lin's forces, Chen Baxian had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him in winter 557, establishing Chen Dynasty as its Emperor Wu. When the news reached Hou and Zhou's forces, which had captured Wuchang from Wang's general Fan Meng , Hou lamented, "We will surely be defeated, because we have lost our cause." Hou and Zhou's forces were also beset by disagreements between the two of them. When they eventually engaged Wang's at Dunkou , Wang dealt them a crushing defeat -- so completely that both Hou and Zhou, as well as their lieutenants Xu Jingcheng , Zhou Tiehu , and Cheng Lingxi , were all captured. Wang put Zhou Tiehu, who insulted him, to death, while imprisoning the others, including Hou, in a lower deck on his own command ship.

They remained in Wang's captivity until winter 558, when Hou, along with Zhou Wenyu and Xu, promised to pay Wang's associate Wang Zijin a large bribe, and Wang Zijin released them at night. They fled by feet to the Chen army and then returned to Jiankang, where they offered apologies to Emperor Wu. Emperor Wu pardoned them and returned them to command positions in the Chen forces. Meanwhile, perhaps because of this incident, Wang Lin, who had by that point declared Emperor Yuan's grandson Xiao Zhuang the Emperor of Liang, agreed to a truce with Chen.

In winter 558, with Yu Xiaoqin's brother Yu Xiaomai defending Xinwu against Chen, Emperor Wu sent Zhou against Yu Xiaomai, while sending Hou to follow Zhou subsequent to Zhou's departure. Wang sent his general Cao Qing to assist Yu, and in spring 559, Zhou was ambushed by the warlord Xiong Tanlang , who was ostensibly assisting Chen troops. Hou withdrew briefly, but then engaged Cao and defeated him.

During Emperor Wen's reign

While Hou Andu was still on the campaign, however, Emperor Wu suffered a sudden illness in summer 559 and soon died, creating a succession crisis -- as Emperor Wu's only surviving son, Chen Chang, was then detained by Western Wei's successor state Northern Zhou at its capital Chang'an. Emperor Wu's wife Empress Zhang Yao'er, after consulting Du Leng and Cai Jingli , kept Emperor Wu's death a secret and summoned Emperor Wu's nephew the Prince of Linchuan from Nanhuan , where Chen Qian was building a fortress. Hou happened to be at Nanhuan at the time as well, and so he returned to Jiankang with Chen Qian. Hou, after discussing the matter with other officials, decided to support Chen Qian as emperor, but Empress Zhang was still hesitant, hoping that Chen Chang, her son, would return. Hou stated, "Now, the four corners of the world have not been pacified; how can we wait for an imperial prince from afar? The Prince of Linchuan had had great contributions to the state, and we support him. Anyone who dares not to speak up should be executed." He even proceeded toward Empress Zhang, with his hand on his sword hilt, requesting her to yield the imperial seal. He further pushed Chen Qian to the position where the imperial heir was supposed to stand for the wake. Only then did Empress Zhang issue an edict having Chen Qian take the throne .

In winter 559, after hearing that Emperor Wu had died, Wang Lin, with Northern Qi assistance, launched a major attack on Chen, hoping to destroy it and reestablish Liang. Emperor Wen sent Hou Tian , Hou Andu, and Xu Du against Wang. In spring 560, Wang was defeated by Hou Tian, and both he and Xiao Zhuang fled to Northern Qi; the territory under their control was divided between Chen and Emperor Xuan of Western Liang, whom Northern Zhou supported.

Wang's defeat, however, precipitated another succession crisis. After news of Emperor Wu's death reached Northern Zhou, Northern Zhou had sent Chen Chang back to Chen, but because his way was blocked by the territory under Xiao Zhuang's control, he was forced to stop at Anlu . After Xiao Zhuang's flight to Northern Qi, Chen Chang continued his journey to the Yangtze River -- and on his way, he wrote impolite letters to Emperor Wen, which Emperor Wen took as a demand for the throne. Emperor Wen, displeased, nevertheless put on a calm face and summoned Hou Andu, telling him, "The Crown Prince is about to return. I will retire and ask for a princely domain." Hou replied, "Ever since ancient times, emperors were not allowed to retire. Although I am foolish, I will not accept this edict." He thereafter requested to personally escort Chen Chang, and Emperor Wen sent him to meet Chen Chang and created Chen Chang the Prince of Hengyang. Once Hou Andu met Chen Chang, he escorted him down the Yangtze River, and on the way, had Chen Chang killed and thrown into the Yangtze. He then returned to Jiankang, announcing that Chen Chang had slipped and fallen into the river. Grateful that Hou had eliminated a rival for him, Emperor Wen created Hou the Duke of Qingyuan -- going from being the duke of a county to the duke of a commandery.

Because of Hou Andu's contributions, at some point during Chen Dynasty , his father Hou Wenhan had been made the governor of his home commandery, Shixing. In summer 560, when Hou Wenhan died, Emperor Wen sent imperial messengers to escort Hou Andu's mother back to Jiankang, but she declined, as she preferred to stay at Shixing. To honor the Hous, Emperor Wen carved out the surrounding region into an Eastern Heng Province and made Hou Andu's cousin Hou Xiao its governor, while making Hou Andu's eight-year-old son Hou Mi the commandery governor, to look after Hou Andu's mother. He also created Hou Andu the Duke of Guiyang, an even larger commandery than Qingyuan.

In winter 560, with Hou Tian in a stalemate against the Northern Zhou generals Heruo Dun and Dugu Sheng , trying to seize the modern Hunan region from Northern Zhou and its vassal Western Liang, Emperor Wen sent Hou Andu to assist Hou Tian. By spring 561, however, without apparent involvement by Hou Andu, Hou Tian was able to negotiate an agreement with Heruo to have him yield the territory to Chen, in exchange for guarantee of safe passage for his troops back to Northern Zhou.

In winter 561, Emperor Wen, wanting to force the warlord Liu Yi , who controlled modern eastern Zhejiang, to submit, sent Hou Andu against Liu. In spring 562, Hou surprised Liu by taking his army over the mountain and descending on Liu's stronghold of Dongyang . When Hou tried to besiege Liu's fotress at Taozhi Mountain , he was wounded by an arrow, but nevertheless continued his assault and defeated Liu. Liu fled to Jin'an , to his son-in-law Chen Baoying . Hou took Liu's territory and returned to Jiankang.

In the meantime, however, Hou, because of his contributions, was growing arrogant and rude, much to Emperor Wen's displeasure, although Emperor Wen's displeasure went unnoticed by Hou. His officers, knowing that Hou would protect them, had largely ignored laws, and whenever they were sought on criminal amtters, they would flee to Hou and go unpunished. When attending imperial gatherings, Hou would often take impolite postures, and once, while attending an imperial feast, he asked Emperor Wen, "How do you feel compared to when you were the Prince of Linchuan?" Emperor Wen initially refused to answer, but after Hou asked again, he responded, "Although it was by the will of Heaven, it is also by your contributions." Upon the completion of the feast, Hou asked that the imperial decorations be lent to him for his own feast, and Emperor Wen, while displeased, agreed. The next day, Hou held his feast, while sitting on the same seat Emperor Wen sat on, while his guests sat at the seats that imperial officials sat on -- acts that Emperor Wen could not tolerate, and his anger was exacerbated when a fire occurred at Chongyun Palace -- and Hou, while trying to command the soldiers to put out the fire, entered the palace in full armor. Emperor Wen thus became resolved to act against Hou.

Therefore, when Zhou Di officially rebelled in winter 562, although the imperial officials largely recommended that Hou be put in command of the troops against Zhou, Emperor Wen sent Wu Mingche instead, and further began to investigate Hou's protection of criminals. Hou began to sense that something was wrong, and he sent his assistant Zhou Hongshi to try to get information from the Cai Jingli. Cai recorded details of Zhou Hongshi's contact and secretly accused Hou of planning a rebellion. Emperor Wen, worried that if he simply summoned Hou that Hou would refuse, issued an edict transferring Hou from being the governor of Southern Xu Province to being the governor of Jiang Province. Hou, believing this to be a routine transfer, stopped at Jiankang before going to Jiang Province. Emperor Wen invited him to a feast and arrested him there; he also arrested Hou's officers, but released them after confiscating their horses and weapons. Emperor Wen then issued an edict announcing Hou's crimes, and the next day ordered Hou to commit suicide, but spared his wife and children and buried Hou at imperial expense. In 571, Emperor Wen's brother posthumously created Hou the Marquess of Chenji and allowed his son Hou Dan to inherit the title.

Traditional historians believe that Hou's fate were foretold by Chen Baxian. According to their accounts, while Chen was still a Liang general defending Jingkou, he once held a feast with his officers. Du Sengming, Zhou, and Hou were all bragging about their contributions. Chen responded:

:''You are all great soldiers of this time, but you all have weaknesses as well. Lord Du has great foresight but insufficient wisdom; you engage in foolish games with your subordinates and are proud to your superiors. Lord Zhou is true to friends, but you are not selective in whom you associate with, and you are overly trusting of others. Lord Hou is overly arrogant and does not know when to stop, and you are frivolous and temperamental. These are not ways to protect your lives.''

Emperor Wen of Chen

2008-09-08T20:26:00.005-07:00

Emperor Wen of Chen , personal name Chen Qian , courtesy name Zihua , was an emperor of the dynasty Chen Dynasty. He was the nephew of the founding emperor, , and after emperor Wu's death in 559, the officials supported him to be emperor since Emperor Wu's only surviving son, Chen Chang, was detained by rival Northern Zhou. At the time he took the throne, Chen had been devastated by war during the preceding Liang Dynasty, and many provinces nominally loyal to him were under control of relatively independent warlords. During his reign, he consolidated the state against warlords, and he also seized territory belonging to claimants to the Liang throne, Xiao Zhuang and Emperor Xuan of Western Liang, greatly expanding Chen's territory and strength.

During Liang Dynasty

Chen Qian was born in 522, as the oldest son of Chen Daotan , a commander of the Liang Dynasty palace guards. His mother's name is not recorded in history. When the rebel general Hou Jing attacked the capital Jiankang in 548 and put it under siege, Chen Daotan participated in the defense of Jiankang against Hou's siege, commanding archers, and he was killed by a stray arrow during the siege. It appeared that during the disturbance, in order to avoid the banditry that was common in the countryside, he went to the Chens' home commandery of Wuxing . After his uncle joined the campaign of the Prince of Xiangdong against Hou, Hou arrested both Chen Qian and Chen Baxian's son Chen Chang and imprisoned them. Only after the victory of Emperor Yuan's forces over Hou were Chen Qian and Chen Chang freed, and Chen Qian joined Chen Baxian's army. He quickly distinguished himself in minor campaigns against local bandits, and he became one of Chen Baxian's trusted generals.

In 554, Western Wei forces attacked Emperor Yuan's new capital Jiangling and captured it, putting Emperor Yuan to death around new year 555. Western Wei declared Emperor Yuan's nephew emperor , but Wang and Chen Baxian refused to recognize Xiao Cha as emperor. They welcomed Emperor Yuan's only surviving son the Prince of Jin'an to Jiankang, declaring him the Prince of Liang and preparing to declare him emperor. However, after Wang's forces suffered several defeats at the hands of Northern Qi forces, Wang accepted the proposal of Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi to make Emperor Yuan's cousin Xiao Yuanming emperor, and he declared Xiao Yuanming emperor in summer 555. Chen Baxian was displeased with Xiao Yuanming's ascension, and in fall 555, with Chen Qian as one of his confidants, he launched a surprise attack on Jiankang, killing Wang and deposing Xiao Yuanming. He declared Xiao Fangzhi emperor .

Prior to taking action against Wang, Chen Baxian considered the probability that Wang's son-in-law Du Kan , then the governor of Wuxing Commandery, would act against Chen Baxian, and secretly sent Chen Qian back to their home county of Changcheng to prepare to intercept Du if he tried to come to Wang's aid. When Chen Baxian succeeded surprisingly quickly, Du, along with Wei Zai the governor of Yixing Commandery , and Wang Sengzhi the governor of Wu Commandery rose against Chen Baxian. Chen Qian was holding his position at Changcheng with several hundred men, and when Du's army attacked him with 5,000 men, he was able to hold against Du's attack, preventing Du from attacking Chen Baxian. This allowed Chen Baxian to come to his aid, forcing Wei to surrender and Wang Sengzhi to flee to Du. Chen Baxian subsequently returned to Jiankang , leaving Chen Qian in command of the armies facing Du, joined by Chen Baxian's general Zhou Wenyu . In spring 556, Chen Qian secretly persuaded Du Kan's general Du Tai to surrender to him, and subsequently, Du Kan was captured and executed. Chen Qian and Zhou were subsequently also able to take over Eastern Yang Province from its governor Zhang Biao , who was loyal to Wang Sengbian. With Chen Baxian still facing Northern Qi troops at Jiankang and lacking food supplies, Chen Qian was able to round up supplies of rice and ducks and deliver them to Jiankang to supply Chen Baxian's army, which subsequently defeated an even-worse-supplied Northern Qi force.

During Emperor Wu's reign

In 557, Chen Baxian had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him, establishing Chen Dynasty as its Emperor Wu. He created Chen Qian, as his only close male relative in his territory, the Prince of Linchuan. Chen Qian's father Chen Daotan was posthumously honored as the Prince of Shixing, and Chen Xu, although not physically in Chen territory, was created the Prince of Shixing to inherit Chen Daotan's title.

In fall 558, after the Liang general Wang Lin had defeated and captured Emperor Wu's key generals Zhou Wenyu and Hou Andu , Emperor Wu, while negotiating a peace settlement with Wang, also sent Chen Qian with a large fleet to prepare to attack Wang should a peace agreement not happen. Subsequently, a peace was negotiated with Wang, although border conflicts continued, and Chen Qian, by Emperor Wu's orders, constructed a fortress at Nanhuan to defend a potential Wang attack.

While Chen Qian was still at Nanhuan, in summer 559, Emperor Wu grew ill and quickly died. Emperor Wu's wife Empress Zhang Yao'er, after consulting the officials Du Leng and Cai Jingli , chose not to announce Emperor Wu's death and summoned Chen Qian back from Nanhuan. The imperial officials, led by Hou, decided to support Chen Qian as emperor, and while Empress Zhang was initially hesitant, hoping that Chen Chang would return, she eventually agreed, and Chen Qian took the throne as Emperor Wen.

Reign

Emperor Wen honored Empress Zhang as empress dowager. He created his wife empress and her son crown prince. As he inherited the throne from Emperor Wu, he did not posthumously honor his father Chen Daotan as an emperor as might otherwise have been expected, but, in order to make sure that his father would be properly venerated , he created his own son Chen Bomao the Prince of Shixing instead, and created Chen Xu, who was then still at Chang'an, the capital of Western Wei's successor state Northern Zhou, the Prince of Ancheng.

Hearing that Emperor Wu had died, Wang Lin launched a major attack on Chen in winter 559. He was initially successful, defeating the Chen general Wu Mingche, but when Emperor Wen sent Hou Tian against Wang, the forces stalemated, even though Wang was also assisted by Northern Qi forces. In spring 560, Hou defeated Wang, and both Wang and Xiao Zhuang fled to Northern Qi. Chen forces took about half of Xiao Zhuang's territory, while the other half went to the Northern Zhou-supported Western Liang.

Wang's defeat brought a succession crisis. After hearing of Emperor Wu's death, Northern Zhou had sent Chen Chang back to Chen, but as his path was blocked by Wang's forces, he had to stop at Anlu . After Wang was defeated, Chen Chang continued his journey, and as he proceeded from Anlu to the Yangtze River, he wrote impolite letters to Emperor Wen, which Emperor Wen took as a demand for the throne. Emperor Wen summoned Hou Andu, suggesting that perhaps he should yield the throne to Chen Chang and accept a princely title. Hou advised him not to, and offered to personally "greet" Chen Chang. Meanwhile, the officials were all suggesting creating Chen Chang an imperial prince, and Emperor Wen declared that Chen Chang was to be created the Prince of Hengyang. A month later, Chen Chang entered Chen territory and met Hou. However, as they travelled on the Yangtze River, Hou had him killed and his body thrown into the Yangtze, and then returned to Jiankang, claiming that Chen Chang had slipped into the river. Grateful that Hou had eliminated a rival for him, Emperor Wen created Hou the Duke of Qingyuan.

In fall 560, Chen forces under Hou Tian began to engage Northern Zhou and Western Liang forces in the modern Hunan region, which Western Liang had taken from Xiao Zhuang when he fled to Northern Qi. The armies stalemated, and in spring 561, unable to prevail over the Northern Zhou general Heruo Dun , Hou Tian offered to allow Heruo to withdraw with his army if he would yield the territory. Heruo agreed, and the territory became Chen possession. Seeking peace, Northern Zhou offered to return Chen Xu to Chen, and Emperor Wen, pleased, offered to trade the city of Lushan for Chen Xu's release. Chen Xu returned to Chen in 562 and became a key official in Emperor Wen's administration. Initially, Northern Zhou continued to detain Chen Xu's wife and son Chen Shubao, but after further negotiations, Northern Zhou released them as well.

Meanwhile, Emperor Wen began to consider the problem of local warlordism -- which rendered the modern Jiangxi, Fujian, and large parts of Zhejiang under warlord control and only nominally submissive to him. In spring 562, he tried to summon one of the key warlords, Zhou Di , to move from his base of Linchuan (臨川, in modern , Jiangxi, to Pencheng . Zhou Di refused, and subsequently unsuccessfully attacked Emperor Wen's general Zhou Fu . Emperor Wen sent Wu Mingche to attack Zhou Di and sent Hou Andu against another warlord, Liu Yi , who controlled modern southern Zhejiang. By summer 562, Hou had defeated Liu Yi, forcing him to flee to his son-in-law, Chen Baoying , who controlled modern Fujian. Wu, however, was unable to immediately defeat Zhou Di, and Emperor Wen sent Chen Xu to attack Zhou Di instead. In spring 563, Zhou Di's forces collapsed, and he fled to Chen Baoying as well. Chen Baoying, Liu Yi, and Zhou Di regrouped together and resisted Emperor Wen's forces and prepared to counterattack. Zhou soon began a guerrilla campaign, while Chen Baoying and Liu held out at Chen Baoying's headquarters at Jin'an .

Meanwhile, Emperor Wen had become increasingly angry and suspicious of Hou Andu's arrogance and protection of his officers' misdeeds. In summer 563, he arrested Hou and forced him to commit suicide.

In summer 564, Zhou Di, after several successful battles, regained some of his following, and soon tricked and assassinated Zhou Fu. However, Emperor Wen's general Zhang Zhaoda was able to capture Jin'an. Chen Baoying and Liu fled but were captured and executed. By fall 565, Emperor Wen's general Cheng Lingxi was able to defeat Zhou Di, who was subsequently betrayed by his own soldiers and killed. Emperor Wen had by now largely unified his state.

In summer 566, Emperor Wen grew ill. Fearing that Crown Prince Bozong was weak in personality and unable to serve competently as emperor, he offered to pass the throne to Chen Xu. Chen Xu himself declined, and the official Kong Huan also opposed. Emperor Wen therefore did not make Chen Xu crown prince instead, but entrusted the important matters to Chen Xu, Kong, Dao Zhongju , Yuan Shu , and Liu Shizhi . He soon died, and Crown Prince Bozong took the throne .

The historian Yao Silian had this to say about Emperor Wen in his ''Book of Chen'':

:''Shizu grew up in difficult times, and he knew much about the people's suffering. He was observant of things and frugal in his lifestyle. Ever night, he would order his servants to open the door to his sleeping quarters, to bring in the emergency submissions so that he could review them. He also ordered that his guards, whenever they were to change shifts, should throw their shift plates on the stone steps so that they would be loud enough to wake him.''

Era name

* ''Tianjia'' 560-566
* ''Tiankang'' 566

Personal information

* Father
** Chen Daotan , brother to Emperor Wu of Chen, posthumously created Prince Zhaolie of Shixing
* Wife
** Empress Shen Miaorong , mother of Crown Prince Bozong and Prince Bomao
* Major Concubines
** Consort Yan , mother of Princes Boshan and Bogong
** Consort Pan, mother of Prince Bogu
** Consort Liu, mother of Prince Boxin
** Consort Wang, mother of Prince Boren
** Consort Zhang, mother of Prince Boyi
** Consort Han, mother of Prince Boli
** Consort Jiang, mother of Prince Bozhi
** Consort Kong, mother of Prince Bomou
* Children
** Chen Bozong , the Crown Prince , later Emperor Fei of Chen
** Chen Bomao , initially the Prince of Shixing , later the Marquess of Wenma
** Chen Boshan , the Prince of Poyang
** Unnamed son, died early
** Chen Bogu , the Prince of Xin'an
** Chen Bogong , the Prince of Jin'an
** Chen Boxin , the Prince of Hengyang
** Chen Boren , the Prince of Luling
** Chen Boyi , the Prince of Jiangxia
** Chen Boli , the Prince of Wuling
** Unnamed son, died early
** Chen Bozhi , the Prince of Yongyang
** Chen Bomou , the Prince of Guiyang
** Princess Feng'an
** Princess Fuyang

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Wu Mingche

2008-09-08T20:26:00.003-07:00

Wu Mingche , courtesy name Tongzhao , was a general of the dynasty Chen Dynasty. He first served under the dynasty's founder , but became the most prominent general of the state during the reign of Emperor Wu's nephew , successfully commanding the Chen army in seizing the region between the Yangtze River and the Huai River from rival Northern Qi. After Northern Qi was destroyed by Northern Zhou, however, Wu was defeated and captured by the Northern Zhou general Wang Gui . After he was taken to the Northern Zhou capital Chang'an, he died in anger.

During Liang Dynasty

Wu Mingche was born in 512, as the youngest son of the Liang Dynasty general Wu Shu . His grandfather Wu Jing'an was a commandery governor during preceding Southern Qi. His family was from Qin Commandery . Despite the fact that Wu Jing'an was a general, the family was not wealthy, and when Wu Jing'an died in 525 when Wu Mingche was 13, it was said that the family could not afford a proper burial. Wu Mingche, despite his young age, worked hard on the family farm, and eventually, partly because of his hard work, the family was able to gather enough funds to bury Wu Jing'an properly.

When Wu Mingche grew older, he served as an officer in the guard corps for Emperor Wu of Liang's crown prince, . When the general Hou Jing rebelled and sieged the capital Jiankang in 548, Wu Mingche appeared to be at his home in Qin Commandery, which, as a result of trade routes' being cut off, suffered from a famine. Wu had grains stored, but rather than keeping the grains for his own clan, he persuaded his older brothers that the grain should be shared with the local people, allowing the people to survive.

Hou soon captured Jiankang, and was not defeated until 553, by Wang Sengbian, a general under the command of Emperor Wu's son the Prince of Xiangdong, who soon declared himself emperor . Wang Sengbian's lieutenant was put in charge of the important city Jingkou . When Chen put out a general invitation for people to join his army, Wu met him. Chen was impressed with his abilities, and treated him with respect. It was also around this time that Wu studied histories and other classical works, as well as astronomy and strategies from the official Zhou Hongzheng . In 554, Emperor Yuan made him a provincial governor, but he continued to serve under Chen's command.

In winter 554, Western Wei launched a major attack on Emperor Yuan's capital Jiangling . Emperor Yuan made an emergency summon to Wang, then in charge of Jiankang, ordering him to come to Jiangling's aid. Wu was one of the generals named by Wang to command part of his troops. However, before Wang could even mobilize his troops, Jiangling fell, and around the new year 555, Western Wei forces put Emperor Yuan to death. Wang and Chen subsequently prepared to make Emperor Yuan's son the Prince of Jin'an emperor, but when Northern Qi attacked and Wang's forces suffered losses against Northern Qi, Wang accepted the proposal of Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi to make Emperor Wu's nephew Xiao Yuanming emperor instead, and he declared Xiao Yuanming emperor in summer 555. Displeased with Wang's decision, Chen made a surprise attack on Jiankang in fall 555, killing Wang and deposing Xiao Yuanming. Chen declared Xiao Fangzhi emperor . Subsequently, when generals loyal to Wang resisted Chen, aided by Northern Qi, Wu served under Zhou Wenyu in the campaign against Wang's son-in-law Du Kan and Zhang Biao , and later participated in a key battle defending Jiankang in 556. For his contributions in the two campaigns, he was created the Marquess of Anwu.

In 557, Chen had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him, establishing Chen Dynasty as its Emperor Wu. Wu Mingche continued to serve as a general in the new dynasty's military.

During Emperor Wu's and Emperor Wen's reigns

Immediately prior to taking the throne, Emperor Wu had sent Zhou Wenyu and another major general, Hou Andu, west against Wang Lin, an independent general still claiming loyalty to Liang, and Wu was one of the generals who served under Zhou and Hou. When Wang subsequently defeated the Chen troops, capturing Zhou and Hou as well as three other generals, Xu Jingcheng , Zhou Tiehu , and Cheng Lingxi , Wu was not captured, and was able to take his forces back to Jiankang. Subsequently, Wu was assigned to operations in the modern Jiangxi region to defend against a possible attack from Wang as well as to keep the local warlords in check.

In 559, Emperor Wu died and was succeeded by his nephew the Prince of Linchuan . Wang, upon hearing of Emperor Wu's death, decided to attack Chen, and Wu Mingche made an attempt to intercept Wang at Pencheng , but was defeated by Wang's general Ren Zhong . Wu barely escaped with his life, allowing Wang to continue his advance toward Jiankang. Wang, however, was subsequently defeated by Hou Tian , and both he and Xiao Zhuang were forced to flee to Northern Qi. As part of Chen's effort to then take control of Xiao Zhuang's territory, Emperor Wen assigned Wu to be the governor of Wu Province , but he was defeated by the Northern Zhou general Heruo Dun and forced to withdraw to Baling . He was, however, able to defeat further Northern Zhou advance there.

In 562, when the warlord Zhou Di , who controlled parts of modern Jiangxi, rebelled, Wu was made the governor of Jiang Province , to command the army against Zhou. However, the strict Wu was unable to get his subordinate generals to obey his orders, and Emperor Wen subsequently sent his brother the Prince of Ancheng to replace Wu. In 564, Emperor Wen made Wu the governor of Wuxing Commandery -- an apparent demotion, but as Emperor Wen pointed out, actually an important position because Wuxing was the imperial Chen clan's home commandery. When Emperor Wen grew ill in 566, he recalled Wu to serve as the commanding general of the palace guards. Emperor Wen died later that year and was succeeded by his son, the Crown Prince .

During Emperor Fei's reign

Initially during Emperor Fei's reign, the government was controlled by, pursuant to Emperor Wen's will, the high level officials Dao Zhongju , Kong Huan , Emperor Wen's brother Chen Xu, Yuan Shu , and Liu Shizhi . However, by spring 567, two factions were developing -- one led by Chen Xu and one led by Dao and Liu, as Dao, Liu, and Chen Xu took up residence in the palace and handled most of the sensitive matters. In spring 567, Liu tried to exclude Chen Xu by having the official Yin Buning informing Chen Xu that he should leave the palace to attend to the affairs of the capital region Yang Province , of which Chen Xu was also governor. Chen Xu consulted Mao Xi and Wu Mingche, both of whom persuaded him not to follow Yin's message. Wu, specifically, argued that Chen Xu was in the position of the Duke of Zhou and the Duke of Zhao and had a responsibility to protect the state. Chen Xu therefore invited Liu to a meeting -- and while the meeting was still going on, had Mao confirming with Empress Dowager Shen and Emperor Fei that it was not their order that he leave the palace. Once Mao confirmed so, Chen Xu arrested Liu and ordered him to committed suicide, while demoting Dao to a lesser position. From this point on, the administration was controlled by Chen Xu. Dao later tried to start an uprising with the general Han Zigao , but the plot was discovered, and Chen Xu forced both of them to commit suicide.

As both Dao and Han were trusted associates of Emperor Wen, another trusted associate of Emperor Wen, Hua Jiao the governor of Xiang Province became apprehensive, and he prepared for a battle with Chen Xu, requesting aid from both Northern Zhou and Emperor Ming of Western Liang -- a Liang Dynasty prince who claimed title to the Liang throne as a Northern Zhou vassal. In summer 567, Chen Xu commissioned Wu as the governor of Xiang Province and had him command a major part of the troops against Hua, along with Chunyu Liang . The opposing sides met at Dunkou . Wu and Chunyu were able to ram Hua's, Northern Zhou's, and Western Liang's fleets, causing them to collapse. Hua and the Northern Zhou general Yuwen Zhi were forced to flee to Western Liang's capital Jiangling. In light of the victory, Wu first captured Western Liang's Hedong Commandery , and then further put Jiangling under siege. Western Liang's Emperor Ming was forced to flee to the subsidiary fort of Ji'nan . Wu sieged Jiangling for 100 days but could not capture it, and had to withdraw in spring 568. For his contributions, he was promoted to the greater title of Duke of Anwu.

In winter 568, Chen Xu deposed Emperor Fei, and in spring 569, he took the throne himself . Wu continued to serve as a general in Emperor Xuan's military.

During Emperor Xuan's reign

In 573, Emperor Xuan wanted to launch a campaign against Northern Qi to capture the region between the Yangtze River and the Huai River. The officials that he discussed with had diverse opinions, but Wu Mingche was the one who advocated quick action. Emperor Xuan decided to carry out attack, and because Chunyu Liang was the senior general, most officials believed that he should command the mission. Xu Ling , however, advocated making Wu the commanding general, pointing out that Wu was a good general and that his family was from north of the Yangtze and therefore he was familiar with the customs of the region. Emperor Xuan therefore put Wu in charge of the main assault, while putting the general Huang Fachu in charge of the secondary front. Wu quickly captured his home commandery . Northern Qi sent forces commanded by the general Wei Pohu to try to stop Wu's advance, but Wu's subordinate Xiao Mohe defeated a group of Northern Qi's best warriors, leading to the Northern Qi army's collapse. Most of the territory south of the Huai River was quickly captured, and as Qin Commandery was Wu's home commandery, Emperor Xuan, in order to honor him, ordered him to publicly offer a sacrifice of an ox, a pig, and a sheep to his ancestors. By fall 573, Wu had the important city of Shouyang , defending by Wang Lin, under siege, and although he could not capture it quickly, he did when the Northern Qi relief force commanded by Pi Jinghe arrived but was hesitant to engage him. He captured Wang, Lu Qian , Kezhuhun Daoyu , and Li Taotu . Pi fled, and Wu captured his horses and camels. Because many of Wu's officers were Wang's subordinates and respected him, Wu became apprehensive and executed Wang, delivering the other Northern Qi officials to Jiankang. The region between the Yangtze and the Huai was now entirely in Chen hands, and Emperor Xuan created Wu the greater title of Duke of Nanping. He also put Wu in charge of the six provinces making up of the region.

In winter 575, Wu launched an attack on Pengcheng . However, he appeared to soon withdraw. In 576, he was made the governor of Southern Yan Province .

In 577, Northern Zhou destroyed Northern Qi and took over its territory. In winter 577, Emperor Xuan, believing that Northern Zhou's hold on Northern Qi's southern provinces was not yet secure, ordered Wu to launch a major attack on Pengcheng, making Wu's heir apparent Wu Rongzhao his lieutenant. Initially, Wu defeated the Northern Zhou governor of Xu Province Liang Shiyan, forcing Liang to withdraw inside Pengcheng and defend it. Wu put Pengcheng under siege. In spring 578, the Northern Zhou general Wang Gui arrived with a force to lift the siege, and he, as his first step, cut off Wu's supply route . Xiao Mohe advised Wu to attack Wang as quick as he could to prevent the supply route from being cut off, but Wu did not follow Xiao's suggestion. Soon, the Chen forces were trapped.

Wu's subordinates suggested destroying the levee near Pengcheng so that the area would flood, allowing them to escape by ships. Wu agreed, but believing that he, as the commanding general, should withdraw last, did so, sending Xiao with the cavalry first. The cavalry was therefore able to escape, but most of the foot soldiers -- 30,000 -- and Wu himself were captured by Wang and taken to the Northern Zhou capital Chang'an. Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou created Wu the Duke of Huaide, but Wu, angry over his captured, died soon thereafter.

It appeared that because Wu Mingche was captured and not killed in action, his titles and offices were stripped by Emperor Xuan. After Emperor Xuan's death, Emperor Xuan's son and successor Chen Shubao posthumously created Wu the Marquess of Shaoling in 583 and allowed his young son Wu Huijue to inherit the title.

Xiao Mohe

2008-09-08T20:26:00.001-07:00

Xiao Mohe , courtesy name Yuanyin , was a general of the dynasties Chen Dynasty and Sui Dynasty. He initially served in the military in the late Liang Dynasty, and gradually grew in stature and fame during the reigns of each of the emperors of Chen. When Sui forces attacked Chen in 589, Xiao resisted, and his defeat and capture sealed Chen's fate, allowing Sui to destroy Chen and unify China. He later served under Emperor Wen of Sui's son Yang Liang the Prince of Han, and became a major proponent of Yang Liang's rebellion against his brother Emperor Yang of Sui after Emperor Wen's death in 604. He was unable to stand against the attack of Emperor Yang's general Yang Su, however, and was captured and executed.

During Liang Dynasty

Xiao Mohe was born in 532, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Liang. When he was less than 10 years old, his father Xiao Liang was made a commandery official at Shixing Commandery , and Xiao Mohe accompanied his father to the commandery. His father died while in service there, and at that time, Cai Luyang , who was had married either his sister or his aunt, was a member of the local gentry at nearby Nankang Commandery , and Cai took him and raised him. As Xiao Mohe grew in age, he became known for being resolute and strong.

In 548, the rebel general Hou Jing rose against Emperor Wu and by 549 had captured the capital Jiankang, taking Emperor Wu and his crown prince hostage. In winter 549, the ambitious general raised an army at Guang Province and planned to march north, eventually to head to Jiankang to attack Hou. His path, however, was blocked by Cai, who then controlled Nankang as a local warlord. Xiao served in Cai's forces and fought so fiercely that none of Chen's soldiers was a match for him, but eventually Cai was defeated, and Xiao surrendered. Xiao became a subordinate of Chen's commander Hou Andu. He was part of Chen's campaign, as Chen joined with Wang Sengbian, the chief general of the Prince of Xiangdong , to destroy Hou Jing.

By 556, Chen was the regent over , Emperor Yuan's son and the chief among the claimants for the Liang throne after Emperor Yuan's capture and execution by Western Wei in 555, after Chen ambushed and killed Wang Sengbian and deposed Xiao Yuanming, the candidate favored by Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi who was declared emperor by Wang. Wang's subordinates Ren Yue and Xu Sihui sought Northern Qi aid in resisting Chen, and Northern Qi forces soon arrived in Jiankang's vicinity. Chen sent Hou Andu to engage Northern Qi forces. Before battle, Hou commented to Xiao, "You are famed for your ferocity in battle, but seeing is better than hearing." Xiao responded, "I will let you see today." During the battle, when Hou fell off his horse and was nearly captured, Xiao was the one who fought hard to save Hou from Northern Qi soldiers. Eventually, Hou was able to repel Northern Qi forces, and for his accomplishments was created a duke. It is not clear whether and how Xiao was awarded, although it was said that Xiao was one of the few subordinates that Hou treated with respect and honor.

During Chen Dynasty

In 557, Chen Baxian seized the throne from Emperor Jing, establishing Chen Dynasty as its Emperor Wu. Xiao Mohe's superior, Hou Andu, served as a major general under Emperor Wu, and became particularly prominent after Emperor Wu died in 559 and was succeeded by his nephew . However, Hou came under Emperor Wen's suspicions in 563, and Emperor Wen forced him to commit suicide. The impact of Hou's death on Xiao's career is unclear, but prior to Hou's death he participated with distinction in the campaigns against the warlords Liu Yi and Ouyang Ge , and for those accomplishments he was eventually promoted to the post of governor of Bashan Commandery .

It was as the governor of Bashan Commandery that Xiao served under the major general Wu Mingche in 573 as Wu, commissioned by Emperor Wen's brother , led a campaign against Northern Qi, seeking to capture the region between the Yangtze River and the Huai River. The Chen forces under Wu were intimidated by the presence in the Northern Qi army, commanded by the generals Wei Pohu and Zhangsun Honglüe , of a sharpshooting bowsman from Xiyu and a team of soldiers with great physical strength. Wu informed Xiao of this, while praising him as having fortitude equivalent to Guan Yu. In response, Xiao sought out the bowsman and killed him with a dart, and then also killed the soldiers with great strength, leading to the Northern Qi forces' losing morale and collapsing. Wei fled, while Zhangsun was killed in battle. Wu was eventually able to capture all of the region between the Yangtze and the Huai later that year. For Xiao's contributions, he was created the Count of Lianping and soon promoted to the rank of marquess. During the subsequent minor campaigns against Northern Qi over the next several years, Xiao also contributed.

After Northern Zhou destroyed Northern Qi in 577, Emperor Xuan wished to contend for the Xu Province region, and he sent Wu to attack the region in winter 577. Xiao served under Wu. Initially, Wu defeated the Northern Zhou governor of Xu Province Liang Shiyan, forcing Liang to withdraw inside Pengcheng and defend it. Wu put Pengcheng under siege. In spring 578, the Northern Zhou general Wang Gui arrived with a force to lift the siege, and he, as his first step, cut off Wu's supply route . Xiao Mohe advised Wu to attack Wang as quick as he could to prevent the supply route from being cut off, but Wu did not follow Xiao's suggestion. Soon, the Chen forces were trapped. Wu subordinates suggested destroying the levee near Pengcheng so that the area would flood, allowing them to escape by ships. Wu agreed, but believing that he, as the commanding general, should withdraw last, did so, sending Xiao with the cavalry first. The cavalry was therefore able to escape, but most of the foot soldiers -- 30,000 -- and Wu himself were captured by Wang and taken to the Northern Zhou capital Chang'an. Xiao was able to return to Jiankang and continued to serve as a general under Emperor Xuan. In 580, after Northern Zhou captured the region between the Yangtze and Huai from Chen, Emperor Xuan made an attempt to recapture the territory, and Xiao served in the campaign along with Emperor Xuan's nephew Chen Huiji , but after he was unable to capture Guangling , he withdrew. Another campaign waged by Xiao and Zhou Luohou in 581 also ended in failure.

In 582, Emperor Xuan died, and his son Chen Shuling tried to assassinate the crown prince Chen Shubao, but only managed to wound, not kill, Chen Shubao. Chen Shuling fled back to his mansion and mobilized troops under his command, and he made overtures to Xiao Mohe, asking Xiao to join his coup attempt. Xiao initially pretended to agree, and when Chen Shuling sent his associates Dai Wen and Tan Qi to confer with Xiao, Xiao beheaded them and hang their heads on the city walls. Chen Shuling's troops lost morale and collapsed, and he was killed. For Xiao's contribution, Chen Shubao, who soon took the throne, created Xiao the Duke of Suijian and awarded Chen Shuling's considerable wealth to Xiao. He also selected Xiao's daughter to be the wife and crown princess of his son and crown prince Chen Yin. He also granted Xiao several honors normally reserved for the highest-ranked officials. He subsequently made Xiao the governor of Southern Xu Province , to defend against potential attacks by Northern Zhou's successor state Sui Dynasty from Guangling.

In spring 589, when Xiao was at Jiankang, the Sui general Heruo Bi took the chance to cross the Yangtze and captured Jingkou . Soon, Heruo arrived at Zhongshan , near Jiankang, and Xiao volunteered to engage Heruo. Chen Shubao agreed, despite warnings by another major general, Ren Zhong , not to engage Heruo. Xiao's own motivation level was said to be low, however, due to an affair that Chen Shubao was having with Xiao's wife. Heruo defeated him and captured him. Heruo threatened him with beheading, and yet Xiao would not prostrate himself. Heruo was impressed and spared Xiao. Subsequently, Heruo captured Chen Shubao as well, and Xiao obtained permission to cook and serve Chen Shubao one final meal from the Chen imperial kitchen as well as to make a tearful farewell -- acts that greatly impressed Sui's Emperor Wen.

During Sui Dynasty

Emperor Wen made Xiao Mohe a general, but unlike the situation with Zhou Luohou, did not give him great responsibilities. However, when Xiao Mohe's son Xiao Shilüe participated in resistance campaigns by former Chen subjects against Sui rule, Emepror Wen pardoned Xiao Mohe from any punishments that he would otherwise have suffered based on Xiao Shilüe's rebellion, on the basis that Emperor Wen believed that Xiao Shilüe was forced to participate.

In 604, when Emperor Wen died and was succeeded by , Xiao was serving under Emperor Yang's brother Yang Liang the Prince of Han, who was the commandant at Bing Province . Yang Liang, not willing to yield to Emperor Yang, rebelled, a rebellion encouraged by Xiao and Wang Kui . However, when Xiao engaged Emperor Yang's general Yang Su, Yang Su defeated and captured him, and then had him executed. His sons were not killed but were seized as imperial servants, and his subordinate Chen Zhishen took his body and gave it a proper burial.

Emperor Xuan of Chen

2008-09-08T20:24:00.000-07:00

Emperor Xuan of Chen , personal name Chen Xu , courtesy name Shaoshi , nickname Shili , was an emperor of the dynasty Chen Dynasty. He seized the throne from his nephew in 569 and subsequently ruled the state for 13 years. He was considered to be a capable and diligent ruler, who at one point militarily expanded at the expense of Northern Qi. After Northern Qi fell to Northern Zhou in 577, however, Chen was cornered, and soon lost the gains it had previously made against Northern Qi. Emperor Xuan died in 582, leaving the state in the hands of his incompetent son Chen Shubao, and by 589, Chen would be destroyed by Northern Zhou's successor state Sui Dynasty.

Background

Chen Xu was born in 530, as the second son of Chen Daotan , a commander in the Liang Dynasty palace guards. His mother's name is not recorded in history. Chen Daotan died in 548 or 549, while commanding the guards in resisting a siege of the palace at the capital Jiankang by the rebel general Hou Jing. After the palace fell to Hou in 549, Chen Xu's older brother and cousin Chen Chang were imprisoned by Hou, because Chen Chang's father, the general , had joined forces with Wang Sengbian, a general under the command of the Prince of Xiangdong in resisiting Hou. It is unclear whether Chen Xu was imprisoned as well. In 551, Wang, with Chen's assistance, defeated Hou and recaptured Jiankang. Xiao Yi subsequently declared himself emperor , but set up his capital at Jiangling rather than returning to Jiankang, which he put under the command of Wang. As part of this alignment, Chen Baxian was given the post of defending Jingkou . Emperor Yuan then summoned Chen Chang and Chen Xu to Jiangling to serve in his administration -- and also to serve as hostages. Both were given mid-level positions. He also gave Chen Xu a wife -- his niece .

In 554, rival Western Wei attacked Jiangling and captured it, executing Emperor Yuan around the new year 555. Chen Xu and Chen Chang were taken to the Western Wei capital Chang'an as honored captives, while Lady Liu and their son Chen Shubao were left at Rangcheng . Wang and Chen Baxian initially wanted to make Emperor Yuan's son the Prince of Jin'an emperor, but after military pressure from Northern Qi, in summer 555, Wang agreed to make Northern Qi's favored candidate Xiao Yuanming emperor instead -- a decision that Chen disagreed with. In fall 555, he made a surprise attack on Jiankang, killing Wang and deposing Xiao Yuanming, making Xiao Fangzhi emperor instead . In 557, he had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him, establishing Chen Dynasty as its Emperor Wu. Chen Xu's brother Chen Qian was created the Prince of Linchuan, and while Chen Xu was still then detained by Western Wei, Emperor Wu remotely created him the Prince of Shixing, to inherit the title that Emperor Wu posthumously created his father Chen Daotan.

Emperor Wu died in 559, and because Chen Chang was still detained at Chang'an as well, Chen Qian took the throne . Because Chen Xu was not available to offer sacrifices to their father Chen Daotan, Emperor Wen created his own son Chen Bomao the Prince of Shixing instead, changing Chen Xu's title to Prince of Ancheng. In 560, Western Wei's successor state Northern Zhou began to make overtures to Chen, offering to return Chen Xu. In 562, after Emperor Wen gave Northern Zhou the city of Lushan in exchange, Chen Xu was allowed to return to Chen. Initially, Princess Liu and Chen Shubao were not returned, but after further negotiations by Emperor Wen, they were returned as well.

During Emperor Wen's reign

Chen Xu quickly became one of his brother Emperor Wen's key subordinates. For example, in spring 562, when the warlord Zhou Di rebelled, Emperor Wen initially sent the general Wu Mingche against Zhou, but when Wu was unable to defeat Zhou, Emperor Wen sent Chen Xu to replace Wu. Over the next few years, Chen Xu continued to be promoted, although he was temporary relieved of several of his posts in 565, when his associate Bao Sengrui , in reliance of their close relationship, was acting inappropriately, and was accused of such impropriety by the official Xu Ling .

In spring 566, Emperor Wen was seriously ill, and Chen Xu, along with the other key officials Dao Zhongju , Kong Huan , Yuan Shu , and Liu Shizhi , attended to him. As Emperor Wen believed his crown prince to be weak in personality, he offered to pass the throne to Chen Xu, but Chen Xu, weeping bitterly, declined, and the move was also opposed by Dao and Kong, and Emperor Wen did not alter his succession order. Emperor Wen died soon thereafter, and Chen Bozong took the throne as Emperor Fei.

During Emperor Fei's reign

Although Emperor Fei was emperor, the power was split between Chen Xu, Dao Zhongju, and Liu Shizhi, and all three lived inside the palace in order to handle sensitive matters. Liu, fearful of Chen Xu's honored status as the emperor's uncle, soon planned to exclude Chen Xu. He had the official Yin Buning informing Chen Xu that he should leave the palace to attend to the matters of the capital region Yang Province , of which Chen Xu was also governor. When Chen Xu considered doing so, his associate Mao Xi and the general Wu Mingche persuaded him that he needed to remain in the palace. Chen Xu therefore invited Liu to a meeting -- and while the meeting was still going on, had Mao confirming with Emperor Wen's wife and Emperor Fei that it was not their order that he leave the palace. Once Mao confirmed so, Chen Xu arrested Liu and ordered him to committed suicide, while demoting Dao to a lesser position. From this point on, the administration was controlled by Chen Xu.

Fearful of what would come next, Dao and the general Han Zigao considered actions against Chen Xu, but before they could take any actions against Chen Xu, their plot was reported to Chen Xu, and Chen Xu arrested them and then had Emperor Fei issue an edict ordering them to commit suicide. Emperor Fei's brother Chen Bomao the Prince of Shixing, whom Chen Xu believed to have participated in both Liu's and Dao and Han's plots, was stripped of his governmental posts and ordered to keep Emperor Fei company.

The deaths of Liu and Han, both of whom were close associates of Emperor Wen, brought fear into the heart of another associate of Emperor Wen -- Hua Jiao the governor of Xiang Province . In summer 567, Hua therefore submitted himself to Northern Zhou and Northern Zhou's vassal state, . Chen Xu sent Wu and Chunyu Liang to lead a fleet against the joint forces of Hua, Northern Zhou, and Western Liang. The opposing sides met at Dunkou . Wu and Chunyu were able to ram Hua's, Northern Zhou's, and Western Liang's fleets, causing them to collapse. Both Hua and the Northern Zhou general Yuwen Zhi the Duke of Wei fled to Western Liang's capital Jiangling, while the Northern Zhou general Yuan Ding were captured. Wu followed up by putting Jiangling under siege in spring 568, but was not able to capture it and subsequently forced to withdraw.

Meanwhile, Chen Xu was receiving greater formal titles and authorities. Chen Bomao, angry over the situation, was making repeated denigrations of Chen Xu, who then resolved to take the throne himself. In winter 568, Chen Xu had an edict issued in the name of Emperor Wu's wife , falsely accusing Emperor Fei of having been part of the plots of Liu and Hua. The edict further stated that Emperor Wen had already known that Emperor Fei was unsuitable, and that Emperor Wen's stated desire to have Chen Xu take the throne should be carried out. Emperor Fei was deposed and demoted to the title of Prince of Linhai, while Chen Bomao was demoted to Marquess of Wenma and subsequently assassinated.

Early reign

For reasons unclear in history, Chen Xu left the throne empty for more than a month, but finally took the throne in spring 569 . He honored Grand Empress Dowager Zhang as empress dowager instead, while Emperor Wen's wife Empress Dowager Shen became known as Empress Wen. He created his wife Princess Liu empress and his heir apparent Chen Shubao crown emperor. Emperor Wen's sons continued to have honored positions as imperial princes and held key posts, but none had particularly high power.

In fall 569, Emperor Xuan, suspicious that Ouyang He the governor of Guang Province would rebel, summoned Ouyang back to Jiankang. Ouyang was himself suspicious of Emperor Xuan's intentions, and therefore refused the order and rebelled. Emperor Xuan sent the official Xu Jian to try to persuade Ouyang to change his mind, but Ouyang would not relent. Emperor Xuan then sent the general Zhang Zhaoda to attack Ouyang. By spring 570, Zhang captured Ouyang and delivered him to Jiankang, where Ouyang was beheaded. Zhang, encouraged by the victory, then attacked Western Liang's capital Jiangling, but after some initial gains, nearly capturing Jiangling, he suffered defeats by the Northern Zhou general Lu Teng and withdrew. Despite this campaign, however, after this point on, Chen and Northern Zhou largely had peaceful relations, often exchanging embassies, forming a rough alliance against Northern Qi.

In spring 573, Emperor Xuan resolved to attack Northern Qi -- but when he discussed the matter with his officials and generals, they had split of opinion. Emperor Xuan, at the suggestion of Xu Ling, selected Wu Mingche, who alone among the generals was resolute as to his support for the campaign, as the commander of the forces, with Pei Ji and Huang Faqu as Wu's deputies. Wu's forces made quick gains against Northern Qi, and by summer 573 had gained most of the territory between the Yangtze River and the Huai River. By fall 573, Wu put the important city Shouyang under siege, and he captured Shouyang in 573, capturing and killing the Northern Qi general in charge of defending the city, the former Liang general Wang Lin. The entire region between the Yangtze and Huai were now in Chen hands. Emperor Xuan was so pleased that he, in an elaborate ceremony, conferred a variety of honors on Wu. He also displayed Wang'shead on the Jiankang city gate, although after a request by Zhu Yang , in which Zhu pointed out that Wang was faithful to Liang and should be honored, he returned Wang's head for a proper burial. In the following years, Chen continued to make minor gains against Northern Qi, but was not making major attacks.

Late reign

In winter 576, Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou launched a major attack on Northern Qi, quickly capturing, in succession, Northern Qi's secondary capital Jinyang and capital . Soon, he captured the Northern Qi emperor Gao Wei and annexed most of Northern Qi's territory by spring 577.

Oddly enough, Emperor Xuan believed that he could seize part of Northern Qi territory after Northern Zhou's victory, and he sent Wu Mingche to again advance north. In winter 577, Wu put Pengcheng under siege, and Emperor Xuan was confident that Wu would soon be able to capture the region south of the Yellow River. When the official Cai Jingli warned otherwise, he was so displeased that he demoted Cai to the post of a commandery governor. In spring 578, the Northern Zhou general Wang Gui thoroughly crushed Wu, capturing him. Regreting his actions, Emperor Xuan recalled Cai to the capital. With the people's hearts shaken by the great defeat, in fall 578, Emperor Xuan held a ceremony in which the officials reaffirmed their loyalty to the state.

In winter 579, Emperor Xuan of Northern Zhou launched an attack on Chen, commanded by the general Wei Xiaokuan. Chen's Emperor Xuan mobilized his troops to resist. However, Chen forces could not stand against Northern Zhou's attacks, and all of the cities that they had captured from Northern Qi previously quickly fell. By new year 580, nearly all of the territory north of the Yangtze had fallen to Northern Zhou, leading to a large wave of refugees who fled across the Yangtze to Chen territory.

In summer 580, Northern Zhou's Emperor Xuan died suddenly, and his father-in-law seized power as regent. The generals Weichi Jiong rose against Yang, and he was joined by the generals Sima Xiaonan and Wang Qian . Sima, the governor of Xun Province and the nine surrounding provinces, soon surrendered to Chen, seeking Chen aid. Emperor Xuan sent the generals Fan Yi , Ren Zhong , and Chen Huiji to attack Northern Zhou's southern provinces to aid Sima, whom he created the Duke of Sui. However, Wei quickly defeated Weichi, forcing Weichi to commit suicide, and Sima's own forces collapsed. He was forced to flee to Chen territory, and all of the territory he controlled was retained by Northern Zhou.

In spring 582, Emperor Xuan died. After a failed attempt by his son Chen Shuling , allied with Emperor Wen's son Chen Bogu , to seize the throne, Crown Prince Shubao took the throne.

Era name

* ''Taijian'' 569-582

Personal information

* Father
** Chen Daotan , brother to Emperor Wu of Chen, posthumously created Prince Zhaolie of Shixing
* Wives
** Consort Qian, mother of Prince Shuxiàn
** Empress Liu Jingyan , mother of Crown Prince Shubao
* Major Concubines
** Consort Peng, mother of Prince Shuling
** Consort Cao, mother of Prince Shuying
** Consort He, mother of Princes Shujiān and Shuming
** Consort Wei, mother of Prince Shuqing
** Consort Liu, mother of Prince Shuqi
** Consort Yuan, mother of Princes Shuwen, Shuda, and Shutan
** Consort Wang, mother of Princes Shubiao and Shuxiong
** Consort Wu, mother of Prince Chuchong
** Consort Xu, mother of Prince Shuyan
** Consort Chunyu, mother of Prince Shushen
** Consort Wang, mother of Prince Shuyu
** Consort Wei, mother of Prince Shuping
** Consort Shi, mother of Princes Shuao and Shuxing
** Consort Zeng, mother of Prince Shuxuan
** Consort Yang, mother of Prince Shumu
** Consort Shen, mother of Prince Shujiǎn, Shucheng, Shushao, and Shukuang
** Consort Yuan, mother of Prince Shuchun
** Consort Wu, mother of Prince Shumo
** Consort Liu, mother of Prince Shuxiǎn
** Consort Qin, mother of Princes Shulong and Shurong
* Children
** Chen Shubao , the Crown Prince , later emperor
** Chen Shuling , initially the Marquess of Kangle , later the Prince of Shixing
** Chen Shuying , initially the Marquess of Jian'an , later the Prince of Yuzhang , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shujiān , initially the Marquess of Fengcheng, later the Prince of Changsha , later Sui Dynasty official under the name Chen Shuxián
** Chen Shuqing , the Prince of Jian'an , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shuming , the Prince of Yidu , later Sui Dynasty official
** Unnamed son, died early
** Unnamed son, died early
** Chen Shuxiàn , Prince Kangjian of Hedong
** Unnamed son, died early
** Chen Shuqi , the Prince of Xincai , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shuwen , the Prince of Jinxi , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shubiao , the Prince of Huainan
** Chen Shuchong , the Prince of Shixing , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shuyan , the Prince of Xunyang
** Chen Shushen , the Prince of Yueyang
** Chen Shuda , the Prince of Yiyang , later Sui Dynasty and Tang Dynasty official, with title of Duke of Jiang during Tang Dynasty
** Chen Shuyu , the Prince of Wuchang , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shuping , the Prince of Xiangdong , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shuao , the Prince of Linhe , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shuxuan , the Prince of Yangshan , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shumu , the Prince of Xiyang
** Chen Shujiǎn , the Prince of Nan'an
** Chen Shucheng , the Prince of Nan Commandery , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shuxing , the Prince of Ruanling , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shushao , the Prince of Yueshan
** Chen Shuchun , the Prince of Xinxing , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shumo , the Prince of Badong , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shuxiǎn , the Prince of Linjiang , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shutan , the Prince of Xinhui , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shulong , the Prince of Xinning
** Chen Shurong , the Prince of Xinchang , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shukuang , the Prince of Taiyuan , later Sui Dynasty official
** Chen Shurui
** Chen Shuzhong
** Chen Shuhong
** Chen Shuyi
** Chen Shuxun
** Chen Shuwu
** Chen Shuchu
** Chen Shufeng
** Princess Xinyi
** Princess Yixing
** Concubine of Emperor Wen of Sui with title of ''Xuanhua Furen''